美國工會
| 勞工 |
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美國的工會受法律認可為代表勞工利益的組織。工會行使集體協商權，為會員談判勞動條件、工資、福利；並監督、糾正雇主違法或違背勞動契約的管理行為，必要時以爭議行為作為談判籌碼。較大的工會還會透過政治遊說或競選，影響美國聯邦政府及各州政治人物的決策。
大多數美國的工會都是兩個大型工會聯盟的會員工會，分別是1955年成立的美國勞工聯合會-產業工會聯合會（AFL-CIO），與2005年自AFL-CIO分家的變革謀勝工會聯合會。兩者都主張自己代表美國和加拿大勞工的政治利益，積極從事政治遊說工作。其中，AFL-CIO特別關注全球貿易議題。
1983年時，美國的工會共有1,770萬名會員，工會組織率為20.1%；然而2013年卻僅剩1,450萬名會員，工會組織率僅有10.8%[1] 民營事業單位的工會組織率甚至僅有7%[2]，創下1932年來的最低紀錄。與其它國家相比，2013年時法國的工會組織率為7.7%、德國為18.1%、加拿大為27.1%，冰島更以85.5%的工會組織率冠居全球。[3]以統計數字而言，美國勞工參與工會的比例顯著偏低。美國的工會組織率與雖大幅滑落，但仍能透過群眾動員或跨領域結盟（例如與移民權益、貿易政策、健康照顧與維生工資等議題團體合作），對美國政治有一定程度的影響力。其中，美國的工會尤其關注各級政府因預算縮減，產生勞工退休金減少或延遲給付等問題。[4] 如有茶黨背景的共和黨籍威斯康辛州州長斯考特·沃克就曾透過刪減預算限制公部門工會的集體協商權。
21世紀的美國工會運動以公部門受僱者，如公務員、教師、消防員、警察、清潔隊員等勞工為主力。此外，工會會員不成比例地以年長、男性勞工居多，且以美國東北部、中西部及加州勞工為主。[5] 整體而言，一個美國工會若能掌握工作和勞動市場特性，平均而言能讓工會會員比非會員多10－30%工資[6]；而在工會組織率較高的州，其勞工比其它州份的勞工有較高的收入和生活水準。國際貨幣基金組織則進一步將美國的收入差距問題，歸因於美國整體的勞工運動與工會組織率衰退所致。[7][7][8][9][10]
歷史
19世紀中葉，工業革命對人類經濟、社會帶來巨大變革，勞資關係逐漸受到社會矚目，工會也隨之誕生。美國早期的工會誕生於南北戰爭之後，1880年代的勞動騎士團是美國最具影響力的勞工團體，但因組織鬆散、缺乏有效領導中心和組織目標不一致等因素，並受到資方和政府聯手打壓而解散。
1886年，龔帕斯創立美國勞工聯合會，創立時仍是不同職種的地方工會組成的鬆散團體，透過協調、支持勞工罷工發展茁壯，如今已是美國最具影響力的工會團體。
1930年代，美國第32任總統富蘭克林·德拉諾·羅斯福推行新政，其中《華格納法案》保障工會的組織權利，促使美國勞工擴大團結、提升組織率。因此，美國的工會在政治上多傾向民主黨，在羅斯福時期更加入新政聯盟，支持羅斯福勝選連任。
二戰後
1946年，親商的保守派政治人物在選舉中大勝，美國國會在1947年通過共和黨籍參議員羅伯特·A·塔夫脫起草的《塔夫特-哈特萊法案》。該法案不只受到共和黨人支持，連多數民主黨人也贊成該法案；即使時任美國第33任總統的哈瑞·杜魯門動用否決權，仍遭跨黨派議員組成的保守聯盟推翻。[11]《塔夫特-哈特萊法案》禁止工會向候選人提供政治獻金、以「危害國家安全」之名提高工會發動罷工的門檻，並強迫工會除名有共產主義傾向的幹部（後美國最高法院裁定該條款違憲，不再適用）；因而遭到美國工運圈強力抵制，但仍無力回天。國會在1959年通過《勞資關係報告法》，要求美國各級工會需向美國勞工部繳交年度報告，以限制有犯罪前科者擔任工會管理職務，從而加強聯邦政府對國際卡車司機工會等工會的行政控制。[12][13]
美國的工會組織率在1954年達到高峰，為35%；而工會會員人數則以1979年最多，達2,100萬人。其後人數因民營部門工會組織不易逐年下滑。
參見
- Labor federation competition in the United States
- Union affiliation by U.S. state
- Public-sector trade unions in the United States
歷史
國際
參考文獻
- ^ Bureau of Labor Statistics, "Union Membership Summary" Jan 24, 2014 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- ^ Union Members Summary （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） Bureau of Labor Statistics, January 24, 2014 Retrieved: 11 March 2014
- ^ See: Trade Union Density. （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- ^ Alicia H. Munnell. State and Local Pensions: What Now?. Brookings Institution Press. 2012: 4–5 [2017-03-19]. （原始内容存档于2021-04-15）.
- ^ Not With a Bang, But a Whimper: The Long, Slow Death Spiral of America's Labor Movement （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）| Richard Yeselson| June 6, 2012
- ^ 8-31-2004 Union Membership Trends in the United States （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） Gerald Mayer.
- ^ 7.0 7.1 Politics that Work (April 3, 2015).
- ^ Doree Armstrong (February 12, 2014).
- ^ Keith Naughton, Lynn Doan and Jeffrey Green (February 20, 2015).
- ^ Michael Hiltzik (March 25, 2015).
- ^ Benjamin C. Waterhouise, Lobbying in America （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, (Princeton University Press, 2013) 53.
- ^ William H. Holley et al.Jr. The Labor Relations Process, 10th ed.. Cengage Learning. 2011: 85 [2017-03-20]. （原始内容存档于2021-04-15）.
- ^ David Scott Witwer. Corruption and Reform in the Teamsters Union. University of Illinois Press. 2003: 131ff [2017-03-20]. （原始内容存档于2021-04-15）.
參考書目
調查報告
- Arnesen, Eric, ed. Encyclopedia of U.S. Labor and Working-Class History (2006), 3 vol; 2064pp; 650 articles by experts excerpt and text search （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Beard, Mary Ritter. A Short History of the American Labor Movement 1920 - 176 pages online edition （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Beik, Millie, ed. Labor Relations: Major Issues in American History (2005) over 100 annotated primary documents excerpt and text search （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Boris, Eileen, and Nelson Lichtenstein, eds. Major Problems In The History Of American Workers: Documents and Essays (2002)
- Brody, David. In Labor's Cause: Main Themes on the History of the American Worker (1993) excerpt and text search （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Browne, Waldo Ralph. What's what in the Labor Movement: A Dictionary of Labor Affairs and Labor (1921) 577pp; encyclopedia of labor terms, organizations and history. complete text online （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Dubofsky, Melvyn, and Foster Rhea Dulles. Labor in America: A History (2004), textbook, based on earlier textbooks by Dulles.
- Dubofsky, Melvyn, and Warren Van Tine, eds. Labor Leaders in America (1987) biographies of key leaders, written by scholars excerpt and text search （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- LeBlanc, Paul. A Short History of the U.S. Working Class: From Colonial Times to the Twenty-First Century (1999), 160pp excerpt and text search （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Lichtenstein, Nelson. State of the Union: A Century of American Labor (2003) excerpt and text search （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Perlman, Selig. A History of Trade Unionism in the United States 1922 - 313 pages online edition （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Taylor, Paul F. The ABC-CLIO Companion to the American Labor Movement (1993) 237pp; short encyclopedia
- Zieger, Robert H., and Gilbert J. Gall, American Workers, American Unions: The Twentieth Century(3rd ed. 2002) excerpt and text search （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Zieger, Robert H. For Jobs and Freedom: Race and Labor in America Since 1865 (2007) excerpt and text search （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
1900年
- Commons, John R. History of Labour in the United States - vol 1 and Vol. 2 1860-1896 (1918) vol 2 online edition （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） (note spelling of "Labour")
- Commons, John R. "American Shoemakers, 1648-1895: A Sketch of Industrial Evolution," Quarterly Journal of Economics 24 (November, 1909), 39-83. in JSTOR （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Commons, John R. ed. Trade Unionism and Labor Problems (1905) articles by experts on unions and working condition online edition （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Grob, Gerald N. Workers and Utopia: A Study of Ideological Conflict in the American Labor Movement, 1865-1900 (1961) online edition （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Hall, John P. "The Knights of St. Crispin in Massachusetts, 1869-1878," Journal of Economic History 18 (June, 1958), p 161-175 in JSTOR （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Laslett, John H. M. Labor and the Left: A Study of Socialist and Radical Influences in the American Labor Movement, 1881-1924 (1970) online edition （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Mandel, Bernard. Samuel Gompers: A Biography (1963) online edition （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Orth, Samuel P. The Armies of Labor: A Chronicle of the Organized Wage-Earners (1919) short popular overview online edition
- Taillon, Paul Michel. Good, Reliable, White Men: Railroad Brotherhoods, 1877-1917 (2009)
- Taft, Philip Taft and Philip Ross, "American Labor Violence: Its Causes, Character, and Outcome," in The History of Violence in America: A Report to the National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence, ed. Hugh Davis Graham and Ted Robert Gurr, 1969. online edition （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Van Tine, Warren R. The Making of the Labor Bureaucrat: Union Leadership in the United States, 1870-1920 (1973) online edition
- Voss, Kim. The Making of American Exceptionalism: The Knights of Labor and Class Formation in the Nineteenth Century (1993) online edition （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Weir, Robert E. Beyond Labor's Veil: The Culture of the Knights of Labor (1996) online edition （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Bibliography of online resources on railway labor in late 19th century （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
1900年–1932年
- Bernstein, Irving. The Lean Years: A History of the American Worker, 1920-33 (1966)
- Brody, David. Labor in Crisis: The Steel Strike of 1919 (1965)
- Dubofsky, Melvyn and Warren Van Tine. John L. Lewis: A Biography (1986)
- Brody, David. Labor in Crisis: The Steel Strike of 1919 (1965)
- Faue, Elizabeth. Community of Suffering & Struggle: Women, Men, and the Labor Movement in Minneapolis, 1915-1945 (1991)
- Fraser, Steve. Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (1993)
- Gordon, Colin. New Deals: Business, Labor, and Politics, 1920-1935 (1994)
- Greene, Julie . Pure and Simple Politics: The American Federation of Labor and Political Activism, 1881-1917 (1998)
- Hooker, Clarence. Life in the Shadows of the Crystal Palace, 1910-1927: Ford Workers in the Model T Era (1997)
- Laslett, John H. M. Labor and the Left: A Study of Socialist and Radical Influences in the American Labor Movement, 1881-1924 (1970)
- Karson, Marc. American Labor Unions and Politics, 1900-1918 (1958)
- McCartin, Joseph A. Labor's Great War: The Struggle for Industrial Democracy and the Origins of Modern American Labor Relations, 1912-1921 (1997)
- Mandel, Bernard. Samuel Gompers: A Biography (1963)
- Meyer, Stephen. The Five Dollar Day: Labor Management and Social Control in the Ford Motor Company, 1908-1921 (1981)
- Mink, Gwendolyn. Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development: Union, Party, and State, 1875-1920 (1986)
- Orth, Samuel P. The Armies of Labor: A Chronicle of the Organized Wage-Earners (1919) short overview
- Quint, Howard H. The Forging of American Socialism: Origins of the Modern Movement (1964)
- Warne, Colston E. ed. The Steel Strike of 1919 (1963), primary and secondary documents
- Zieger, Robert. Republicans and Labor, 1919-1929. (1969)
早期文獻
- Gompers, Samuel. Seventy Years of Life and Labor: An Autobiography (1925)
1932年 - 1955年
- Bernstein, Irving. Turbulent Years: A History of the American Worker, 1933-1941 (1970)
- Boyle, Kevin. The UAW and the Heyday of American Liberalism, 1945-1968 (1995)
- Campbell, D'Ann. "Sisterhood versus the Brotherhoods: Women in Unions" Women at War With America: Private Lives in a Patriotic Era (1984).
- Dubofsky, Melvyn and Warren Van Time John L. Lewis (1986).
- Faue, Elizabeth. Community of Suffering & Struggle: Women, Men, and the Labor Movement in Minneapolis, 1915-1945 (1991), social history
- Fraser, Steve. Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (1993).
- Galenson, Walter. The CIO Challenge to the AFL: A History of the American Labor Movement, 1935-1941 (1960)
- Gordon, Colin. New Deals: Business, Labor, and Politics, 1920-1935 (1994)
- Jensen, Richard J. "The Causes and Cures of Unemployment in the Great Depression," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 19 (1989) p. 553-83
- Kennedy, David M. Freedom From Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929-1945. (1999) recent narrative.
- Lichtenstein, Nelson. Labor's War at Home: The CIO in World War II (2003)
- Lichtenstein, Nelson. The Most Dangerous Man in Detroit: Walter Reuther and the Fate of American Labor (1995)
- Miller, Sally M., and Daniel A. Cornford eds. American Labor in the Era of World War II (1995), essays by historians, mostly on California
- Seidman; Joel. Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen: The Internal Political Life of a National Union (1962)
- Vittoz, Stanley. New Deal Labor Policy and the American Industrial Economy (1987)
- Zieger, Robert H. The CIO, 1935-1955 (1995)
公平就業委員會
- Collins, William J. "Race, Roosevelt, and Wartime Production: Fair Employment in World War II Labor Markets," American Economic Review 91:1 (March 2001), pp. 272–286
- Kersten, Andrew Edmund. Race, Jobs, and the War: The FEPC in the Midwest, 1941-46 (2000) online review
- Reed, Merl E. Seedtime for the Modern Civil Rights Movement: The President's Committee on Fair Employment Practice, 1941-1946 (1991)
塔夫特-哈特萊法案與全國勞工關係法
- Abraham, Steven E. "The Impact of the Taft-Hartley Act on the Balance of Power in Industrial Relations" American Business Law Journal Vol. 33, 1996
- Ballam, Deborah A. "The Impact of the National Labor Relations Act on the U.S. Labor Movement" American Business Law Journal, Vol. 32, 1995
- Brooks, George W., Milton Derber, David A. McCabe, Philip Taft. Interpreting the Labor Movement (1952)
- Gall, Gilbert J. The Politics of Right to Work: The Labor Federations as Special Interests, 1943-1979 (1988)
- Hartley Jr. Fred A., and Robert A. Taft. Our New National Labor Policy: The Taft-Hartley Act and the Next Steps (1948)
- Lee, R. Alton. Truman and Taft-Hartley: A Question of Mandate (1966)
- Millis, Harry A., and Emily Clark Brown. From the Wagner Act to Taft-Hartley: A Study of National Labor Policy and Labor Relations (1950)
早期文獻
- Christman, Henry M. ed. Walter P. Reuther: Selected Papers (1961)
1955年至今
- Bennett, James T., and Bruce E. Kaufman. What do unions do?: a twenty-year perspective (2007)
- Dark; Taylor E. The Unions and the Democrats: An Enduring Alliance (1999)
- Dine, Philip. State of the Unions: How Labor Can Strengthen the Middle Class, Improve Our Economy, and Regain Political Influence (2007)
- Fantasia, Rick, and Kim Voss. Hard Work: Remaking the American Labor Movement (2004)
- Galenson, Walter; The American Labor Movement, 1955-1995 (1996)
- Goldberg, Arthur J. AFL-CIO, Labor United (1956)
- Leiter, Robert D. The Teamsters Union: A Study of Its Economic Impact (1957)
- Lichtenstein, Nelson. "Two Roads Forward for Labor: The AFL–CIO's New Agenda." Dissent 61.1 (2014): 54-58. Online[永久失效連結]
- Lipset, Seymour Martin, ed. Unions in Transition: Entering the Second Century (1986)
- Mort, Jo-Ann, ed. Not Your Father's Union Movement: Inside the AFL-CIO" (2002)
- Rosenfeld, Jake. What Unions No Longer Do. (Harvard University Press, 2014) ISBN 0674725115
- Yates, Michael D. Why Unions Matter (2009)
外部連結
- AFL-CIO official Web site （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Change to Win Federation official Web site （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- The Challenges of Today's Labor Unions （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- The Cost of a Decline in Unions （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） (February 2015), Nicholas Kristof, The New York Times
- The incredible decline of American unions, in one animated map （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） (February 2015), Ana Swanson, The Washington Post
- What Happened to Unions in the Midwest? （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） (Feb. 2015), Melanie Trottman and Eric Morath, The Wall Street Journal
- Unions still matter （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） (April 2015), Sean McElwee, Al Jazeera America.
- Americans Don't Miss Manufacturing – They Miss Unions （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）. FiveThirtyEight, May 13, 2016.
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