User:AngeCI/沙盒

维基百科,自由的百科全书
r
a
ra
ra
Z1
h
r
wra
r
k
ra
wbn
ra


sD
sDm
m
sDmm

WannaCry

Ooops, this userpage has been encrypted!

这个用户页出了什么问题
这个用户页被作者加密保存了。
这和一般的网页损坏有本质上的区别。您大可在网上找找恢复用户页的方法,我敢保证,没有作者的准许,就算老天爷来了也不能恢复这些内容。
有没有恢复这些网页的方法?
当然有可恢复的方法。只能通过贡献自己给作者尽情虐待才能恢复。我以人格担保,能够提供安全有效的恢复服务。
但这是收费的,也不能无限期的推迟。
请点击 <Bribe> 按钮,就可以免牺牲恢复一些内容。请你放心,我是绝不会骗你的。
但想要恢复全部内容,需要有足够多的人作出牺牲。
是否随时都可以固定时间受刑,就会恢复的吗,当然不是,推迟受刑时间越长对你不利。
最好3天之内支援牺牲,过了三天受刑时间就会翻倍。
还有,一个礼拜之内未作出牺牲,将会永远恢复不了。
对了,忘了告诉你,对半年以上不敢做出牺牲的胆小人士,会有活动免费恢复,能否轮到你,就要看你运气如何了。

Torture time will be raised on
9/4/2024 5:15:03

Time Left
Content will be lost on
9/4/2024 7:15:03

Time Left
About Abcabc2
How to sacrifice yourself?
Sacrifice yourself and be abused to this address:
Copy
Contact Us
Sacrifice yourself Bribe

數學用表

乘法表

x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
3 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 51 54 57 60
4 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80
5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
6 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90 96 102 108 114 120
7 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84 91 98 105 112 119 126 133 140
8 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96 104 112 120 128 136 144 152 160
9 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90 99 108 117 126 135 144 153 162 171 180
10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
11 11 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99 110 121 132 143 154 165 176 187 198 209 220
12 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144 156 168 180 192 204 216 228 240
13 13 26 39 52 65 78 91 104 117 130 143 156 169 182 195 208 221 234 247 260
14 14 28 42 56 70 84 98 112 126 140 154 168 182 196 210 224 238 252 266 280
15 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180 195 210 225 240 255 270 285 300
16 16 32 48 64 80 96 112 128 144 160 176 192 208 224 240 256 272 288 304 320
17 17 34 51 68 85 102 119 136 153 170 187 204 221 238 255 272 289 306 323 340
18 18 36 54 72 90 108 126 144 162 180 198 216 234 252 270 288 306 324 342 360
19 19 38 57 76 95 114 133 152 171 190 209 228 247 266 285 304 323 342 361 380
20 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400

次方個位表

n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 1 4 9 6 5 6 9 4 1
0 1 8 7 4 5 6 3 2 9
n4 0 1 6 1 6 5 6 1 6 1
n5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

這個表是用來查某數的某次方的個位數,表中的空格表示根據上面的規則循環。表格上限以上的數值也是循環。

比如要查86174052的個位數:

8617的個位數是7,對應上表寫着7的直行,計算的餘數,答案應是0,找到n4橫行與7直行的交點,得答案1。

階乘

象棋棋盤

我的一個靈感:基於現有模板,加上「上一步」和「下一步」兩個按鈕,做一個用JavaScript或是HTML5的動態棋盤,僅使用一個棋盤的大小(指網頁排版上的大小)便可以以圖形表示一個棋局,而不用只使用可能較難理解的文字描述,以方便一般人更好地理解條目內容。相似的想法也可以應用在類似的棋盤上,比如國際象棋。


日耳曼語強變化動詞

這個條目現在的版本是基於2011年的英文維基條目翻譯過來的。不過英文版的條目在2013年11月時做了個大修改,新的版本側重於比較同一語言中不同動詞的變化,而舊的版本側重於比較同一動詞在不同語言中的變化。

以下的內容是針對新條目的重新翻譯,如果某部分內容與現時的中文版條目重合,將直接採用原來的條目。

新舊版條目對動詞的各個主要部分的編號有點不同,原來的第二部分被視為第一部分的變種而不再直接列出,其之後的部分也被重新編號。本人傾向繼續把這個部分列出,但會跟隨新版條目的編號,並把舊版的第二部分重新命名為「第一部分 umlaut」。

起源及發展

強動詞起源於它們的祖語原始印歐語 (PIE)。在PIE中,元音變換可以在很多詞類中頻繁出現,而不只是動詞。在任何給定的音節中出現的元音被稱為它的「等級」。在很多詞語中,它們的基本元音是*e (e-grade),但是,根據重音在詞語中的位置,這個元音可以變成*o (o-grade),或者消失 (zero grade)。eo都可以延長變成ēō (lengthened grade)。因此元音變換可以把短e音變成以下的發音:

Ø e ē
o ō

隨著日耳曼語言從原始印歐語的發展,它們大大地改變了原始印歐語的動詞系統。原始印歐語沒有時態,但是有三個不同「體」:現在、不定過去和完成。The present implied some attention to such details and was thus used for ongoing actions ("is eating",非完整体). The aorist originally denoted events without any attention to the specifics or ongoing nature of the event ("ate",完整體). 完成體是一個静态动词,and referred not to the event itself, but to the state that resulted from the event ("has eaten" or "is/has been eaten"). 在日耳曼語中,不定過去時最終消失了並與現在時合併,而完成時呈現了過去時的意義並成為了一般的過去時。因此,日耳曼語的現在時來自PIE的現在時,而過去時來自PIE的完成時。PIE動詞的屈折變化也有相當大的變化。

在這些變化的過程中,由PIE元音變換引起的不同根元音成為了時態的標記。因此在日耳曼語中,*bʰer-變成了*beraną in the infinitive (e-grade); *bar in the past singular (o-grade); *bērun in the past plural (ē-grade); and *buranaz in the past participle (zero-grade).

原始日耳曼語中,強動詞的系統是很規則的。隨著從PIE到日耳曼語的發展中發生的音變,強動詞的元音變得更多變,但通常以可預見的方式,因此在大多數情況下,一個給定類別的強動詞的所有主要部分英语Principal part都可以從不定式中可靠地預測。因此,我們可以將日耳曼共同語重構為具有七個一致的強動詞類。這個系統在最早期的日耳曼語言中基本保持完整,特別是哥德語古英語古高地德語古諾爾斯語

逐漸消失

大部分直接來自原始印歐語的日耳曼語強動詞,正在慢慢轉化成弱動詞或者被弱動詞取代。

除了發展強動詞系統之外,日耳曼語還發展了另外兩類動詞:弱動詞和第三個更小的類別稱為preterite-present verb英语preterite-present verbs。Preterite-present verbs在英語的助動詞中繼續存在,例如can/could, shall/should, may/might, must。 弱動詞來自PIE中其他類型的動詞,它們原來只有現在時。這些動詞沒有完成時,意味着一旦完成時變成了過去時,這些動詞就會缺少過去時。由於沒有過去時,它們顯然也沒有現在時和過去時之間的元音變化。為了彌補這一點,這些動詞最終建立了一種新的過去形式 by adding a -d- or -t- suffix to the stem. 這就是只有強動詞有元音變化的原因:它們的過去時繼承自PIE的完成時,而弱動詞的過去時是在後來才被創造的。

弱變化動詞在各日耳曼語言中的發展,意味着強變化動詞逐漸地失去其作用。基本上所有的新出現的動詞皆為弱變化動詞。許多強變化動詞隨着時間的經過,變成了弱變化動詞,因此強變化動詞的總數在各語言中是不斷遞減的。

強動詞系統的一致性仍然存在於現代的德語荷蘭語冰島語法羅語中。例如在德語和荷蘭語中, strong verbs are consistently marked with a past participle in -en, 而弱動詞的過去分詞在德語中以-t結尾,在荷蘭語中以-t或者-d結尾。然而,在英語中,原始的強動詞變化已經在很大程度上瓦解,結果在現代英語語法中,強弱動詞的分別不比「規則」與「不規則」動詞的分別來的有用。因此動詞to help,它過去的變化形式為help-holp-holpen,但現在變成help-helped-helped。過來的現象,也就是弱變化動詞藉由類推變成強變化動詞,是較少見的。(一個例子是在美式英語中的sneak, snuck, snuck.,一些權威人土認為它們是非正式的。另外還有"sneeze"的humorous past tense "snoze"[1]).

一些可能被某些人稱為「半強變化」(semi-strong)的動詞在過去式有弱變化的變位,但卻依舊保有強變化的分詞形,在少數情況下則相反。這類動詞在荷蘭語中較為常見:

  • lachen lachte (較早的形式為loech) gelachen (意即「笑」)
  • vragen vroeg (較早的形式為vraagde) gevraagd (意即「問」)

在英語中的例子有swell, swelled, swollen

在極少數情況下,使用者似乎通過矯枉過正英语Hypercorrection發明了原本不存在的強動詞形式:

  • (只在美國和加拿大方言) dive, dove, dived.

變化解說

(同原版)

動詞種類

日耳曼語的強動詞一般基於元音轉變的類型分為七類。This is in turn based mostly on the type of consonants that follow the vowel. 盎格魯-撒克遜學者Henry Sweet給這七類命名為:

I. The "drive" conjugation

II. The "choose" conjugation

III. The "bind" conjugation

IV. The "bear" conjugation

V. The "give" conjugation

VI. The "shake" conjugation

VII. The "fall" conjugation

然而,它們一般只以數字表示。

In Proto-Germanic, the common ancestor of the Germanic languages, the strong verbs were still mostly regular. The classes continued largely intact in 古英語 and the other older historical Germanic languages: 哥德語古高地德語古諾爾斯語。 However, idiosyncrasies of the phonological changes led to a growing number of subgroups. Also, once the ablaut system ceased to be productive, there was a decline in the speakers' awareness of the regularity of the system. That led to anomalous forms and the six big classes lost their cohesion. This process has advanced furthest in English, but in some other modern Germanic languages (such as German), the seven classes are still fairly well preserved and recognisable.

The reverse process in which anomalies are eliminated and subgroups reunited by the force of analogy is called "levelling", and it can be seen at various points in the history of the verb classes.

In the later Middle Ages, German, Dutch and English eliminated a great part of the old distinction between the vowels of the singular and plural preterite forms. The new uniform preterite could be based on the vowel of the old preterite singular, on the old plural, or sometimes on the participle. In English, the distinction remains in the verb "to be": I was, we were. In Dutch, it remains in the verbs of classes 4 & 5 but only in 元音長度: ik brak (I broke - short a), wij braken (we broke - long ā). In German and Dutch it also remains in the present tense of the preterite presents. In 林堡語 there is a little more left. E.g. the preterite of to help is (weer) hólpe for the plural but either (ich) halp or (ich) hólp for the singular.

In the process of development of English, numerous sound changes and analogical developments have fragmented the classes to the extent that most of them no longer have any coherence: only classes 1, 3 and 4 still have significant subclasses that follow uniform patterns.

For a treatment of the classes one at a time showing how the forms evolved in the various Germanic languages, one can consult an older version of this Wikipedia article.[2]

Before looking at the seven classes individually, the general developments that affected all of them will be noted. The following phonological changes that occurred between Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Germanic are relevant for the discussion of the ablaut system.

  • The development of grammatischer Wechsel as a result of 維爾納定律 (the voicing of fricatives after an unstressed vowel). This created variations in the consonant following the ablaut vowel.
  • When the zero grade appears before l, r, m or n, the vowel u was inserted, effectively creating a new "u-grade".
  • oa (also oyai, owau).
  • ei when i, ī or j followed in the next syllable. This change is known as umlaut, and was extended to affect other vowels in most later languages.
  • eyī as a result of the above.
  • ei before m or n followed by another consonant. This had the effect of splitting class 3 into 3a and 3b.

For the purpose of explanation, the different verb forms can be grouped by the vowel they receive, and given a "principal part" number:

  1. All forms of the present tense, including the indicative mood, subjunctive mood, imperative mood, the infinitive and present participle.
  2. The singular forms of the past tense in the indicative mood.
  3. All other past tense forms, which includes the past dual and plural in the indicative mood, and all forms of the past subjunctive mood.
  4. The past participle, alone.

In West Germanic, the 2nd person singular past indicative deviates from this scheme and uses the vowel of Part 3. Its ending is also an -i of unclear origin, rather than the expected -t < PIE *-th₂e of North and East Germanic, which suggests that this state of affairs is an innovation.

一至六類

頭五類動詞似乎延續了以下的PIE元音等級:

第一部分 第二部分 第三部分 第四部分
1, 2, 3 e o
4 ē
5 ē e

除了四類和五類的第三部分明顯的ē等級外,these are in fact straightforward survivals of the PIE situation.

PIE的標準模式在日耳曼語中反映為一至三類,現在時(第一部分)是e等級,過去直陳單數(第二部分)是o等級,剩下的過去時(第三部分)和過去分詞(第四部分)是零等級。一、二和三類之間的差異來自根元音之後的半元音,如下表所示。

可以看出,第一部分的e等級和第二部分的o等級。它們之間的分別在於第三和第四部分:

  • 在一類和二類動詞中,在元音後面的半元音在零等級時變成了全元音。
  • 在三類動詞,以及四類動詞的過去分詞中,它們沒有半元音but there were PIE syllabic resonants which developed in Germanic to u plus resonant; thus u became the Germanic sign of these parts. There is some evidence that this may have been the original behaviour of the past nonsingular / nonindicative of class 4 as well: to wit, preterite-presents whose roots have the class 4 shape show u outside the present indicative singular, such as *man- ~ *mun- "to remember", *skal- ~ *skul- "to owe".
  • 在五類動詞中,過去分詞的零等級有可能在PIE中已經變成了e等級, because these verbs had combinations of consonants that were phonotactically illicit as a word-initial cluster, as they would be in the zero grade.
  • 四類和五類的第三部分中的*ē事實上並不是PIE的延長等級,而是在日耳曼語才出現的。Ringe suggests that it was analogically generalised from the inherited part 3 of the verb *etaną "to eat" before it had lost its reduplicant syllable, PIE的*h1eh1d-規則地變為日耳曼語的*ēt-

Class 6 appears in Germanic with the vowels a and ō. PIE sources of the a vowel included *h2e, *o, and a laryngeal between consonants;[3] possibly in some cases the a may be an example of the a-grade of ablaut, though the existence of such a grade is controversial. It is not clear exactly how the ō is to be derived from an earlier ablaut alternant in PIE, but believable sources include contraction of the reduplicant syllable in PIE *h2-initial verbs, or o-grades of verbs with interconsonantal laryngeal. In any event, within Germanic the resulting a ~ ō behaved as just another type of vowel alternation.

原始日耳曼語中,這導致了以下的元音模式:

第一部分 第二部分 第三部分 第四部分 意義 通常的PIE來源
1 *rīdaną *raid *ridun *ridanaz to ride 元音 + y/i
2a *freusaną *fraus *fruzun *fruzanaz to freeze 元音 + w/u
2b *lūkaną *lauk *lukun *lukanaz to close, to shut 未知。
3a *bindaną *band *bundun *bundanaz to bind 元音 + mn + 其他子音。
3b *werþaną *wa *wurdun *wurdanaz to become 元音 + lr + 其他子音。
4 *beraną *bar *bērun *buranaz to bear 元音 + l, r, mn + 非子音。
5 *lesaną *las *lēzun *lezanaz to gather 元音 + 除了 y, w, l, mn之外的任何子音。
6 *alaną *ōl *ōlun *alanaz to grow, to mature 元音 + 單一子音,如果現在詞幹在晚期的PIE中有a或者o的話。
  • 2b類的來源不明,並且似乎不反映任何的PIE元音變換模式。
  • 在三類動詞中,也有少數情況下,至少在原始日耳曼語中,元音後面會跟着兩個輔音,而它們都不是鼻音或流音。[4]如:*brestaną "to burst", *þreskaną "to thresh" *fehtaną "to fight". 除了一個之外,所有元音前面都有一個鼻音或流音。This 這將會成為一個音節並且在鼻音或流音前產生一個u,然後它根據餘下的主要部分進行類推。例如*brestaną的第三部分本來會是*bʰr̥st- > *burst-, reformed to *brust-.
  • 同樣地,六類動詞也包括一些元音後面跟著兩個塞音情況,如*wahsijaną "to grow"。
  • 在五至七類中,還有一個叫「"j-presents」的子類。他們的現在時有一個額外的-j-,它導致了現在時中的umlaut。在西日耳曼語中,這也導致了West Germanic gemination

七類動詞

七類動詞的形式非常不同,並沒有完整地反映前五類中的標準元音等級。Instead of (or in addition to) vowel alternations, 這個類還顯示了過去式中第一個詞幹輔音的重複

一般認為,reduplication was once a feature of all Proto-Indo-European perfect-aspect forms. It was then lost in most verbs by Proto-Germanic times due to haplology. However, verbs with vowels that did not fit in the existing pattern of alternation retained their reduplication. Class 7 is thus not really one class, but can be split into several subclasses based on the original structure of the root, much like the first 5 classes. The first three subclasses are parallel with classes 1 to 3 but with e replaced with a: 7a is parallel to class 1, class 7b to class 2, and class 7c to class 3.

The following is a general picture of the Proto-Germanic situation as reconstructed by Jay Jasanoff.[5] Earlier reconstructions of the 7th class were generally based mostly on Gothic evidence.

子類 第一部分 第二部分 第三部分 第四部分 意義 詞根模式
7a *haitaną *hegait *hegitun *haitanaz to call a + i
7b *hlaupaną
*stautaną
*heglaup
*stestaut
*heglupun
*stestutun
*hlaupanaz
*stautanaz
to leap
to push, to bump
a + u
7c *haldaną
*fanhaną
*hegald
*febanh
*heguldun
*febungun
*haldanaz
*fanganaz
to hold
to catch
a + l, r, m or n + 其他子音(如果後面沒有其他子音,將會變成六類動詞)
7d *lētaną
*sēaną
*lelōt
*sezō
*lel-tun
*sez-un
*lētanaz
*sēanaz
to allow, to let
to sow
ē
7e *blōtaną
*grōaną
*beblōt
*gegrō
*beblō?tun
*gegr-un
*blōtanaz
*grōanaz
to sacrifice
to grow
ō

The situation sketched above did not survive intact into any of the Germanic languages. It was changed significantly, but rather differently in Gothic on one hand, and in the Northwest Germanic languages on the other.

  1. ^ 1957, S. Lee Crump, Boys' Life - Aug 1957 - Page 62: I sneezed a sneeze into the air; / It fell to earth I know not where. / But hard and cold were the looks of those / In whose vicinity I snoze. cited at http://www.engyes.com/en/dic-content/Anagrams/snoze
  2. ^ [1]
  3. ^ Examples: *aka- < *h2ego- ("to drive"), *mala- < *molh2o- ("to grind"), *habja- ("to lift") < *kh2pio- ("to seize"). See Ringe 2006, p. 188.
  4. ^ Ringe, Don. 2006. A Linguistic History of English. From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanlic. pp. 226, 243.
  5. ^ Jasanoff, Jay. From Reduplication to Ablaut: The Class VII Strong Verbs of Northwest Germanic (PDF). 2008 [26 November 2012].