馬克·達根之死

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馬克·達根之死
日期2011年8月4日 (2011-08-04)
時間18:15(英國夏令時
地點 英國英格蘭倫敦托特納姆谷英語Tottenham Hale
座標51°35′17″N 0°03′32″W / 51.587944°N 0.058861°W / 51.587944; -0.058861座標51°35′17″N 0°03′32″W / 51.587944°N 0.058861°W / 51.587944; -0.058861
參與者倫敦警察廳、馬克·達根
死亡1(達根)
受傷1(警察)
調查警察獨立投訴委員會英語Independent Police Complaints Commission
訴訟2013年9月16日 – 2014年1月8日
驗屍官基思·卡特勒英語Keith Cutler
裁決自衛殺人

2011年8月4日,29歲英國黑人男子馬克·達根(Mark Duggan)是一名在冊的黑幫成員,他在托特納姆運輸槍械的過程中被警方開槍射殺。倫敦警察廳表示涉嫌策劃襲擊,懷疑他持有手槍,便試圖將他逮捕。達根胸部中槍身亡。達根的死因引起托特納姆民眾的公開抗議[1],活動隨後演變成警民衝突,最終激化為全倫敦及英國其他城市的騷亂[2]

達根是倫敦警察廳分支部門三叉戟行動英語Operation Trident (Metropolitan Police)的調查對象,因持有BBM Bruni 92型手槍(貝瑞塔92空包彈版本,經改裝可發射實彈)被警方了解。該手槍是凱文·哈欽森-福斯特(Kevin Hutchinson-Foster)在達根遭殺害的15分鐘前給他的。哈欽森-福斯特的審判於2012年9月至10月舉行,陪審團未能定罪。2013年1月31日的重審中,哈欽森-福斯特因向達根提供槍手被定罪,背叛監禁。警察獨立投訴委員會英語Independent Police Complaints Commission一直調查該案件,但調查報告的發佈推遲了一年多的時間。達根死因的公開審訊英語Inquests in England and Wales於2013年9月16日開始,2014年1月8日結束,裁判以8比2的結果裁定達根屬自衛殺人[3]

官方對達根死因的表述屢次變動[4][5],招致各利益方及其他支持者的批評和懷疑[6]

背景

1981年9月15日[7],馬克·達根於倫敦北部的闊水農場英語Broadwater Farm出生,並在此處成長。父母是愛爾蘭非裔加勒比人英語British African-Caribbean people的後代[8]。12歲至17歲時,達根與曼徹斯特的姨媽卡羅爾(Carole)共同生活[9],而另一位姨媽朱莉(Julie)後來嫁給了曼徹斯特的黑幫頭目德斯蒙德·努南英語Desmond Noonan[10]

事發時,達根和長期伴侶西蒙妮·韋爾遜(Semone Wilson)生了三個孩子,分別10歲、7歲和18個月[8]。之後與另一位女子生了第四個孩子[11],還有第三位女子懷有他的兒子[12]。因此他是六個孩子的父親,最年輕的一位在他去世時出生[9]

表兄弟表示,達根曾在倫敦史坦斯特機場工作,曾申請擔任消防員[13]。達根的兒子凱馬尼(Kemani)是倫敦鑽頭英語Drill music嘻哈群體英語Hip-hop collective有機農場男孩英語OFB (group)成員,藝名班多凱(Bandokay[14]

倫敦標準晚報》湯尼·湯普森(Tony Thompson)認為,達根可能是托特納姆莊園英語Tottenham Mandem[15]北倫敦分支「星幫」(Star Gang)的元老[16]。一位未具名的警方消息人士告訴《每日電訊報》,達根是「非常出名的黑幫」[17],「骨幹成員,托特納姆的警方都知道」[18]

參與三叉戟行動英語Trident Gang Crime Command的警察監視了達根。警方稱懷疑達根正計劃為同年3月在東倫敦的一家酒吧門外被捅死[19]的表兄凱爾文·伊斯頓(Kelvin Easton[20]報仇。周圍人表示,自從表兄死後,達根越來越偏執[21]。《每日電訊報》表示,根據該幫派的《街頭法則》,達根必須為表兄的死報仇[20]

事發後,警方及其他人士稱達根為毒販英語illegal drug trade,但被家人和朋友否認[22]。家人們表示針對達根的指控「子虛烏有」,達根「不是黑幫成員,沒有前科」[23]。然而達根曾因持有大麻和銷贓英語handling stolen goods被判刑[24]。他的未婚妻表示他曾歸所盜竊的財務[7]

案件

托特納姆黑爾英語Tottenham Hale渡輪巷(Ferry Lane),案發地點。

倫敦警察廳的警察於英國標準時間2011年8月4日晚6點15分截停了載有達根的私人出租車[25]。車輛被截停的地方無監控攝像頭[26]

2012年9月,一名未具名的武裝警察在凱文·哈欽森-福斯特的庭審中表示,達根走出車外,拔出系在腰部的自動裝填手槍[27]。在詢問中作證的匿名出租車司機表示,達根離開車子後跑了:

司機告訴法庭,武裝警察曾威脅開槍打他,如果他繼續看達根倒在地上的地方,表示警察嚴厲呵斥他。

警察開了兩槍,一槍打在達根的肱二頭肌,一槍打中胸部。現場有一把槍[27]倫敦救護服務英語London Ambulance Service的護理人員和倫敦空中急救英語London's Air Ambulance的醫護人員抵達現場,但於英國標準時間18點41分宣佈達根已死亡[30][31]

打死達根的警察隸屬於特種槍械司令部,三叉戟行動的警察陪同在側[22]

一位目擊者告訴《獨立報》,達根中槍時被警察壓制在地上[32],但在詢問中被證據反駁。《每日電訊報》引述另一名目擊者,一名警察「喝止男子『數次』,但他未遵從警告」[17]英國廣播公司引述另一名目擊者,指警察打槍前喊了兩次「把槍放下」[33]。然而,接載達根的出租車司機告訴法庭,警方是無預警開槍[29]大都會警察聯合會英語Metropolitan Police Federation代表表示,槍殺達根的警察「非常相信他和同事面臨着眼看着會被槍殺的危險」[34]

其中一位包圍達根的警察被子彈擊中,之後子彈卡在電台中。該子彈由代號為V53的警察射出,穿過了達根的胳膊,射中這位警方[35]。中槍的警察被送往醫院,當天晚上便出院[36]

警方後續行動

警方着手移動了接載達根的出租車[5]。就車輛何時移動進行一番爭論後,警方將出租車送去檢驗,隨後再送回現場[37]。當地一名平等機會倡導者表示,監警會最初不知道這些事情,後來才批准將車輛移走,然後要求將其帶回到現場[38]

最初由代號「W70」的警察遞交的「短版」事件報告並沒有說達根舉起了槍。W70在48小時後遞交的另一份報告認為,達根從腰帶抽出一把手槍。W70後來表示短版報告是「故意縮短」的[4]

直到達根遇害1天半後,警方才將死訊告訴他家人。警方後來為此致歉[39]

獨立投訴委員會申訴

獨立警方投訴委員會英語Independent Police Complaints Commission發言人最初表示「警察先中的槍,達根後中槍」[17][40],但警方後來澄清該說法不屬實[5][41]。有一顆子彈打進了警方佩戴的無線電,彈道學測試顯示子彈屬披甲彈英語jacketed round,或是警方HK MP5半自動卡賓槍發射的子彈[30],子彈可能是在跳彈英語ricochet停止作用的影響下穿入無線電[42][43]

投訴委員會委託法醫處英語Forensic Science Service對手槍進行測試,得到的建議是手槍屬非法槍械[30][44][45][46][47]。槍被一隻襪子套住,按照推測,如果這把槍被用過,可能是槍手想避免留下證據[48]。投訴委員會8月9日宣佈未找到槍支有被用過的證據,但是沒有排除對這把槍的懷疑,後續測試正在進行[30][49][50]

2011年11月18日,投訴委員會宣佈與案件有關的9毫米手槍在距現場10英尺(3.0米)到14英尺(4.3米)英尺遠的柵欄另一側被發現[51][52]。達根家聘請的大律師米高·曼斯菲特英語Michael Mansfield表示,目擊者告訴他,警方把槍扔過柵欄[5]。投訴委員會最初也說有三位警察目擊到警察扔槍,但後來撤回該說法[38]

2011年11月18日,投訴委員會宣佈調查案發六天前7月29日的一起事件中是否出現了同一把槍。當天,理髮師彼得·奧薩德貝(Peter Osadebay)在哈克尼被30歲的凱文·哈欽森-福斯特(Kevin Hutchinson-Foster)襲擊,哈克尼攻擊前,曾拿出一把槍炫耀[53]。2013年1月13日,福斯特被裁定向達根提供槍擊,庭審中他承認達根所用的槍和他打奧薩德貝的槍是同一把[54]。達根的指紋也出現在一個紙板箱中,顯示他用箱子裝過槍。箱子在案發現場20英尺(6.1米)處,裏面有一隻裝着手槍的襪子。指紋和DNA未從手槍和襪子上檢測出[55][56]。其他測試顯示達根身上沒有槍傷的殘留痕跡[56]

倫敦警察廳

警方認為執法人員不存在不當行為,但表示射殺達根的人沒有攜帶實彈武器當值[57]。行動中攜帶武器的警員自稱V53,僅向獨立投訴委員會提交書面聲明,拒絕接受審訊[52][58]。投訴委員會請求審訊警方,就算他們沒有犯罪嫌疑[59]

凱文·哈欽森-福斯特的審判

2011年11月,獨立投訴委員會調查警方對2011年7月29日事件「調查響應的質量」[53]

2012年9月18日,哈欽森-福斯特在斯尼亞斯布羅克的皇家法院受審。被告被控向達根提供作案用的BBM Bruni 92型手槍[60],但他否認指控,解釋了自己的DNA出現在槍上面的原因,聲稱自己曾被達根一夥黑幫用槍毆打[61]

庭審期間,QEB霍利斯·懷特曼英語QEB Hollis Whiteman (chambers)QC愛德華·布朗英語Edward Brown (barrister)檢控官爭辯稱達根去萊頓找哈欽森-福斯特拿槍,之後帶着槍開車去托特納姆[60]。警方認為達根是在中彈前的12到15分鐘從哈欽森-福斯特處領到槍[62]

警方證詞

七位警官用假名在庭上作證[63]。警方聲稱達根從腰帶拔出槍,用槍指着警察,之後被對方擊斃[64][65]。出租車司機遞交證據,得到一名在場警察確認。證據顯示,達根走下出租車,打算逃跑。司機表示「看到馬克·達根下車逃跑。與此同時,我聽到前面有槍聲,我看到馬克·達根中了槍,他倒在地上[28]」,「馬克·達根中槍的時候,離我的車只有兩到三英尺」[29]

病理學家證詞

負責檢驗達根遺體的病理學家西蒙·波爾(Simon Poole)在2013年1月凱文·哈欽森-福斯特案重審時作證,聲稱達根在事件中受的傷與開槍警官的證詞不一致。代表哈欽森-福斯特的大律師質疑波爾,認為警方子彈穿透波爾右側的身體,之後從右側轉移到左側。波爾同意大律師的說法:「所以說那種情況不合理,是吧?警察開槍打中他左側的身體,子彈穿透達根先生的胸口,理應從左側去到右側,但它是右側去到左側。所以可以說那種情況不合理?[66]」但波爾後來認同檢方的意見,就是達根如果正面朝向開槍的警察,則他與警察的相對位置就會改變[66]。2011年12月獨立投訴委員會的聲明引述波爾的說法,即在達根的手臂處找到第二枚卡住的子彈[41]

結果

2012年10月17日,陪審團未能達成有罪判決[67]。重審日期定於2013年1月,之後被告被判向達根提供手槍[68],2月26日獲刑11年,其中提供槍支7年,相關罪行4年[69]。但是哈欽森-福斯特的案件未能釋除大眾對達根遇害的眾多謎團[70]

後續

達根的死訊迅速傳開。達根被槍擊後不久,Facebook上流傳據稱警方踩着達根屍體的照片。仇警情緒迅速蔓延[6]

示威活動

警民關係緊張

自1985年寬水農場騷亂英語Broadwater Farm riot以來,黑人社群與警方的關係長期劍拔弩張[71],托特納姆工黨議員大衛·拉米英語David Lammy認為「警方與(黑人)社群之間早已存在的裂痕已經擴大」[72]。他表示,1985年以來當地社群與警方的關係有所改善[73],但此次槍擊案讓緊張關係「再度升溫」[74],達根的死只是「托特納姆民眾在被警方拘禁時死亡的其中一環」[75]三叉戟行動主席克勞迪婭·韋伯英語Claudia Webbe直言許多黑人認為達根槍擊案是「又是一起被拘禁人士無辜死亡的事件」[76],托特納姆黑人青年「被攔截搜身的仍然是白人青年的六、七、八倍」[77]

英國黑人小說家亞歷克斯·惠特爾英語Alex Wheatle曾因參與1981年布里克斯頓暴亂英語1981 Brixton riot要服刑[78],他表示許多黑人同胞在被警方拘禁期間死亡,但警察從未被定罪,「令人深感憤怒」[79]

2017年,提議用子彈殺死達根的警察托尼·漢利(Tony Hanley)精神崩潰,故意讓警察開槍打死自己,最終飲彈自盡。漢利說經常看到達根的鬼魂,認為自己要對達根負責[80]

騷亂

歌來頓的里夫斯家族(House of Reeves)家具店在騷亂中被燒毀。

英國標準時間2011年8月6日17點30分,達根的親屬和當地居民從寬水農場英語Broadwater Farm遊行到托特納姆警察局。示威者高呼「我們要答案」,要求警方公開達根之死的信息。他們還提出要求「正義」的進一步要求,讓更多人知道他們社區的警民關係緊張[6]。警察局長與示威者對話,但被要求見上司。晚上8點,一名16歲的女孩接近警方,疑似投擲傳單或石頭。警方攜帶盾牌和警棍包括這個女孩,據稱打破了她的頭[81][82][83]。8點20分,正在等待警官出面的民眾朝附近兩輛警車縱火。大都會警察局局長阿德里安·漢斯托克表示暴力活動是由「不參與守夜活動的人士」挑起的[43]。其他目擊者表示集會最初大致和平,但有聲音煽動集會人士攻擊警察[84]

暴力示威活動蔓延到倫敦其他地區乃至英格蘭其他地方[2][85]。示威者聲稱暴力示威是由多種因素引起的,包括警察問題、貧窮及有色人種與警方關係緊張[1][86][87]

達根的家屬譴責暴力行動。達根的哥哥表示「完全無法容忍任何類似的行為」[88]。達根的事件或許是誘發暴力行為的主要因素,英國首相甘民樂否認杜根之死與隨後的搶劫之間存在因果關係[89]

媒體報道

達根的死很多成為媒體關注的焦點事件。最初英國廣播公司錯誤聲稱其中一槍是「從車內的非法槍支中射出的」[90]。《獨立報》在2014年1月8日表示「當局錯誤地說他是在交火中被擊中的」[91]。部分媒體將達根描繪成黑幫分子,混淆不同媒體聲稱達根的犯罪記錄有些或根本不存在的說法,而遭到批評[24][92]。部分媒體因不加批判地報道了杜根先開槍的警方的假新聞,而受到指責[92]。騷亂事件引起國際社會關注達根的死亡,一名伊朗官員認為事件「嚴重侵犯人權」[93]

葬禮

2011年9月9日,達根的葬禮在活格林新約上帝教會(New Testament Church of God)舉行。數千名的圍觀者觀看了葬禮遊行,警方低調佈防[94]

調查

投訴委員會調查

按照人員與警方接觸後死亡或重傷的標準程序[95],事件很快便報告給了獨立警察投訴委員會[96]。投訴委員會的工作人員還調查了閉路電視片段、999報警電話及電台錄音[97]

8月12日,投訴委員會表示他們事後可能向記者提供了錯誤的信息,讓大家以為達根和警方交火。有枚子彈雖然卡在警方的無線電里,但沒有證據顯示這是達根槍開出的子彈[98]。委員會還表示外界謠傳達根被警方多次開槍爆頭「處決」的消息不屬實[99][100]。然而達根的家人不相信委員會的調查公平、獨立,要求獨立調查倫敦警察廳和委員會的關係,並呼籲讓獨立第三方進行第二次屍檢[23]。驗屍官安德魯·沃克計劃出席2011年12月12日的首次聆訊[31]

2011年11月,投訴委員會任命的兩位「社區諮詢小組」成員辭職,留下的其中一人表示「震驚地了解到獨立委員會打破自己的規則,向記者提供錯誤的信息」,同時發現委員會調查「存在缺陷,很可能在一定程度上被玷污」,「意味着我們永遠無法相信他們對殺人案的最終報告」[101]

2012年2月29日,投訴委員會維持認為倫敦警察廳沒有合理告知家人達根的死訊。委員會調查明確沒有提到2011年8月6日及之後的事件[102]。早在2011年8月,倫敦警察廳助理副警長史蒂夫·卡瓦納(Steve Kavanagh)就警方最初與達根家人接觸的方式不當,向他們道歉[103],認為投訴委員會有責任向達根的家人提供情報[104]。3月底,投訴委員會表示按照《2000年調查權力監管法英語Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000》,他們不可能在調查期間對外公開消息,質疑對驗屍官的聆訊是否可以公開進行[105]。2012年4月,BBC公開案發後的現場畫面,顯示醫護人員在現場處理達根的屍體。投訴委員會譴責BBC播出畫面前沒有問過他們[106]

投訴委員會計劃於2012年夏季發佈調查報告,但到2013年1月仍未發佈,同時原計劃進行的謀殺案聆訊推遲到9月進行[107]。2013年3月,投訴委員會表示會在4月發佈報告,5月遞交給聆訊法庭[56]。至於謀殺達根的警察,投訴委員會發言人於8月2日表示「現階段未有證據表明有刑事行為」。他們透露調查已基本結束,最終報告將於8月晚些時候發佈[108]

11名涉事警察最初拒絕接受委員會問話。殺害達根的警察「V53」後來提交了書面證詞[108]

2019年12月,法醫調查員呼籲重新調查2011年的案件,表示案件的虛擬模式與調查結果有所出入[109]。他們的報告於2020年6月公佈[110]。從投訴委員會更名而來的警察行為獨立辦公室英語Independent Office for Police Conduct於2021年5月表示不會重新調查案件,新報告未證明他們的調查出錯[111]

倫敦警察廳

警方認為涉事警察不存在不當行為,但表示擊斃達根的警方之後不會持上膛武器當值[57]

代號V53的涉事持槍警察向獨立投訴委員會提交書面聲明,未接受詢問[33][58]。托特納姆議員大衛·拉米英語David Lammy批評該警察的行為[52][58]。其實投訴委員會有權詢問警方,即便他們沒有犯罪嫌疑[59]

Trial of Kevin Hutchinson-Foster

In November 2011, the IPCC began an investigation into the "quality of the investigative response" by police to an incident on 29 July 2011, for which police charged Kevin Hutchinson-Foster with possession of a handgun, believing the gun may be the same found at the shooting of Mr. Duggan.[53]

On 18 September 2012, Hutchinson-Foster's trial commenced in the Crown Court at Snaresbrook. The defendant was charged with supplying Duggan with the BBM Bruni Model 92 handgun, found near Duggan's car after his death.[60] The defendant denied the charge and gave his explanation for the presence of his DNA on the gun by alleging he had been beaten with the weapon by a gang that included Duggan.[61]

During the trial, prosecutor Edward Brown QC英語Edward Brown (barrister) of QEB Hollis Whiteman英語QEB Hollis Whiteman (chambers) contended that Duggan travelled to Leyton to collect the gun from Hutchinson-Foster, before driving to Tottenham with it.[60] The police alleged that Duggan had received a gun from Hutchinson-Foster 12–15 minutes before he was shot.[62]

Police testimony

The trial included testimony from seven police officers who were allowed to remain anonymous and use pseudonyms.[63] The Police alleged that Duggan had pulled the gun from his waistband and pointed it at police before they shot him.[64][65]

According to the evidence given by the cab driver and corroborated by one policeman present at the scene, Duggan got out of the taxi and ran in an attempt to escape.[28] The driver stated, "I saw that Mark Duggan got out and ran. At the same time, I heard firing from the front. I saw shots strike Mark Duggan. He fell to the ground."[28] "Mark Duggan only got 2ft–3ft from my car when he was shot", the taxi driver later testified.[29]

Pathologist testimony

Simon Poole, a pathologist who had performed a post-mortem on Duggan's body, testified in January 2013 at the retrial of Kevin Hutchinson-Foster and asserted that the injuries Duggan sustained in the shooting were not consistent with the account of the incident that was given by the police officer who fired the lethal shot. Questioned by a barrister representing Hutchinson-Foster, Poole said that the police bullet had penetrated Duggan's body on the right side and travelled from right to left. Poole agreed with the barrister's statement: "So the scenario can't be right? The officer fires to his left and the bullet hits Mr Duggan in the chest and it should go from left to right – but it went right to left. Therefore the scenario can't be right?"[66]

Poole also later agreed with the prosecution that if Duggan had turned to face the officer who shot him, his position relative to them would have changed.[66]

A December 2011 IPCC statement had cited Poole for discovering that a second bullet struck Duggan's arm.[41]

Outcome

On 17 October 2012, the jury failed to reach a verdict.[112] The re-trial date was set for January 2013,[113] and on 31 January 2013 the defendant was convicted of supplying Duggan with the handgun.[114] On 26 February 2013, the defendant was sentenced to eleven years in prison; seven years for supplying the gun, four years for related offences.[115]

The Hutchinson-Foster case did not resolve a number of significant unknown questions related to the Duggan killing.[70]

官方回應

審訊

參見

參考資料

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外部連結