蒙古突袭巴勒斯坦
蒙古突袭巴勒斯坦主要于1260年及1300年发生，是蒙古入侵叙利亚取得暂时胜利后的进一步军事行动，当时十字军运动已趋于结束。蒙古人每次成功入侵叙利亚后，就会有历时数个月的侵掠巴勒斯坦行动，最南甚至到达加沙。
侵掠巴勒斯坦的兵力只占蒙古大军的一小部分，延续劫掠、杀人及破坏。但在每次侵掠中，蒙古人似乎无意把巴勒斯坦纳入蒙古政权伊儿汗国的管治范围内，通常在蒙古入侵叙利亚数个月后，从埃及反攻的马木留克军只会遇到少许抵抗就夺回了叙利亚。[1]
1260年的蒙古入侵
1258年，由旭烈兀率领西征的蒙古军成功占领伊斯兰世界的权力中心巴格达城，摧毁了阿拔斯王朝。内有一些来自先前已征服或归顺地区如格鲁吉亚等地的基督徒的蒙古军，取得巴格达后，随即进攻阿尤布王朝的领土叙利亚。蒙古军攻下阿勒颇，于1260年3月1日占领大马士革，[2][3][4][5]把阿尤布王朝也摧毁。
巴格达及大马士革陷落后，马木留克治下的开罗成为了伊斯兰势力的中心。蒙古人大概想继续进军，经巴勒斯坦攻入埃及，却因为一宗在突厥斯坦的内部冲突而停止进兵。旭烈兀与部队主力撤走，留下景教徒将领怯的不花指挥的蒙古骑兵约1万人驻守征服地。[6]
怯的不花继续进攻，攻下巴勒贝克、al-Subayba及Ajlun[7]，又派遣蒙古劫掠者进入巴勒斯坦，深入至亚实基伦，也许到过耶路撒冷。有蒙古守军约1000人驻在加沙，[8][9][10]另有一支守军在纳布卢斯。[11]
旭烈兀曾向法国国王路易九世传信，说他们已经把耶路撒冷归还基督徒。不过现代的历史学者相信耶路撒冷当时也许遭到蒙古人至少一次的劫掠，但是除此之外就没有被其它形式占领或正式征服。[12][13]
1260年的阿音札鲁特战役
从叙利亚败退到开罗后，埃及马木留克与残留在阿卡的耶路撒冷王国法兰克人谈和。纵使穆斯林马木留克是十字军的传统敌人，法兰克人对马木留克及蒙古保持被动的中立。此时法兰克人似乎视蒙古人的威胁尤甚于那些穆斯林，因此马木留克军得以不受阻拦而通过十字军的领域，及集结大军，于1260年9月在加利利的阿音札鲁特迎战剩下的蒙古军。马木留克军在此役大胜，使蒙古军首次遭受到重大挫败。至此旭列兀领导的西征战役成为蒙古征战史的最高点，此后蒙古人虽有再数次入侵叙利亚，可是直到1300年才取得成功，而且与上次一样，攻下的土地只能占领数个月。
1260年的西顿事件
被当时的人形容为不负责任及轻率的西顿及Beaufort十字军领主Julian de Grenier于1260年趁机劫掠贝卡地区，那里不久前被蒙古人占领。怯的不花派遣其侄（或甥）带同一支小部队去追究损失，却遭到Julian的伏击及杀害。怯的不花于是突袭西顿城，摧毁城墙及杀害基督徒，而城堡则据说未有被攻下。[14][15]
1271年爱德华一世十字军时的蒙古侵掠
1269年，英国爱德华王子（即后来的英王爱德华一世）发动了自己的一次十字军，即第九次十字军东征。[16]与他同行的武士及仆从很少，[17]也许只有大约230位武士，连同其他人有总数约1000人，用一支有13艘船的船队运载。[18][19]当中不少人是爱德华的亲密友人及家族的人，包括其妻卡斯提尔的艾莉诺、弟艾德蒙及堂兄弟Almain的亨利。
当爱德华于1271年5月9日抵达阿卡时，他立即派遣使者到蒙古统治者阿八哈那里。[20]爱德华计划用蒙古人的帮助去进攻穆斯林领袖拜巴尔一世。[21]该使团由Reginald Russel、Godefrey Welles及John Parker率领。[22][23]阿八哈于一封标明日期为1271年9月4日的信函中对爱德华的请求作出了正面回应，历史学者Runciman及Grousset引用中世纪的书《Estoire d'Eracles》说：
| “ | 爱德华及基督徒们派往鞑靼人求助的信使返回阿卡。他们做得很好，把鞑靼人也一同带来，侵掠了安提阿、阿勒颇、Haman及La Chamele的所有地方，最远到大凯撒利亚。同时他们杀死所有找到的撒拉森人。 | ” |
—《Estoire d'Eracles》，第461页[24][25][26]
1271年10月中，应爱德华之邀的蒙古军抵达叙利亚，进攻阿勒颇及以南之地。阿八哈由于要同时应付突厥斯坦的其它冲突，只能从安那托利亚的占领军抽调蒙古骑兵1万人前来，由Samagar指挥，加上辅助的塞尔柱部队。[26]穆斯林居民想起怯的不花的前事，触发了逃亡潮，甚至蔓延至开罗。[22]蒙古军打败了保卫阿勒颇的土库曼人军队，逼使该城的马木留克守军逃走，蒙古军然后向Maarat an-Numan及阿帕美前进。[26]
当拜巴尔一世于11月12日从埃及反攻时，蒙古军已经撤退至幼发拉底河以外，因为兵力不足以抗衡马木留克的大军。
1299年－1300年的蒙古战役
1299年夏，合赞统治下的伊儿汗国成功夺取了北部城市阿勒颇，在12月23或24日的Wadi al-Khazandar之战（又称为第三次霍姆斯战役）击败马木留克军。[27]蒙古军将领Mulay的部队从合赞的大军分出，追击败退的马木留克军远至加沙，[27]把他们赶回埃及。合赞的主力部队向大马士革进发，大马士革于1299年12月30日至1300年1月6日间的某天投降，然而它的要塞坚持抵抗。[27][28]合赞在2月撤走了他的大部分军队，大概是因为马匹要补充饲料。合赞许诺会在11月回来以进攻埃及。[29]
这样，从1300年2月至5月的4个月内，蒙古的伊儿汗成为圣地“事实上的”主人。[30]Mulay手下约1万人骑兵侵掠南至加沙的地方，[31]约于1300年3月返回大马士革，数日后跟随合赞渡过幼发拉底河回去。[32]
埃及的马木留克军随后回来，于1300年5月重夺整个地区，[33]未曾一战。[34]
1300年耶路撒冷的命运
中世纪文献对于1299年－1300年那些侵掠的规模有许多不同观点，现代历史学者对于哪些文献最为可信、哪些有加盐添醋或根本是错误也是意见不一。尤其是当时耶路撒冷的命运，争论仍然持续，有些历史学者认为蒙古人的侵掠延伸至城内，另一些人认为该城未有被攻下，甚至没有被围城。[35]
最常被引用的对此事的研究见于由Sylvia Schein博士于1979年发表的《Gesta Dei per Mongolos》一文，她在该文结论说“圣地被宣称的收复根本没有发生过”。[36][37]不过Schein在她1991年的书中加入一个简短的脚注，说蒙古人占领耶路撒冷“已获得证实”，因为有记载说他们于1300年取走圣殿的金门，运往大马士革。[38]这是根据14世纪神父波吉邦西的尼科洛的记述，他详细描述耶路撒冷的建筑，及提到蒙古人对那门做过的事。另一学者Denys Pringle认为尼科洛的记述是说蒙古人试图毁坏、焚烧或拆走该门但不成功，当马木留克军回来后，他们用墙封堵了那门。[39][40]
Alain Demurger在他2007年的书《Les Templiers》说蒙古人攻占大马士革及耶路撒冷，[41]又说合赞的将领Mulay也于1299年－1300年“有效地出现在”耶路撒冷。[42]根据Frederic Luisetto，蒙古军“渗透入耶路撒冷及希伯仑，他们在那里进行了多次屠杀”。[43]Andrew Jotischky在《The Crusaders and the Crusader States》中以Schein的1979年文章及1991年的书去说“在短暂及大致上是象征式地占据耶路撒冷后，合赞撤返波斯”。[44]
欧洲人关于耶路撒冷的谣传
不管真相如何，蒙古人的进军使欧洲流传谣言，说蒙古人或已占领了耶路撒冷，将会交给欧洲人。这些谣传从1300年大约3月开始，大概是建基于刚从塞浦路斯归来的威尼斯商人的叙述。[45]那些叙述或多或少准确地反映蒙古人在叙利亚的军事胜利，但就扩大至说蒙古人“大概”已夺得圣地。这些谣言因为主观愿望及大群人聚集在罗马迎接圣年的都市传说环境而被广泛吹捧。故事发展至（错误地）说蒙古人已经取得埃及，蒙古的合赞汗已任命其兄弟为那里的新国王，及蒙古人打算征服巴巴利及突尼斯。谣言也说合赞释放了被拘禁于大马士革及埃及的基督徒，以及当中有些人已经启程去塞浦路斯。[46]
到了1300年4月，教宗博义八世发出信函宣布有“将会用特别喜庆去庆祝的重大及高兴的消息”，[47]就是蒙古合赞汗已征服了圣地，并提议把该地交给基督徒。在罗马，教宗下令游行队伍“庆祝收复圣地”，作为1300年圣年庆典的一部分。教宗更鼓励每一个人出发前往那片新收复的地方。英王爱德华一世被要求鼓励他的子民也出发去参观圣地。教宗博义八世甚至在他的训谕《Ausculta fili》提到从蒙古人那里收复圣地的事。
在圣年（1300年）的夏天，教宗博义八世接待了多位由各处王公派来的使节。其中一团有100个蒙古人，由佛罗伦斯人Guiscard Bustari率领，代表伊儿汗。这个使团被许多当时文献提及，参加了圣年的仪式。[46]Guiscard Bustari据说就是被合赞提名去监督在他打算交还法兰克人的地区重建法兰克人统治的人。短时间内曾有大欢欣，但是教宗很快就知道叙利亚那里的真实情况，合赞其实已经于1300年2月撤走了大部分军队，及马木留克到5月已收复失地。[46]不过谣言起码持续至1300年9月。[48]
参见
注释
- ^ Amitai, Mongol Raids, pp. 247-248
- ^ Saudi Aramco World "The Battle of Ain Jalut". [2009年9月23日]. （原始内容存档于2012年2月12日）.
- ^ Grousset, p. 581
- ^ "On 1 March Kitbuqa entered Damascus at the head of a Mongol army. With him were the King of Armenia and the Prince of Antioch. The citizens of the ancient capital of the Caliphate saw for the first time for six centuries three Christian potentates ride in triumph through their streets", Runciman, p.307
- ^ "The king of Armenia and the Prince of Antioch went to the army of the Tatars, and they all went off to take Damascus".|Gestes des Chiprois, Le Templier de Tyr. "Le roy d'Arménie et le Prince d'Antioche alèrent en l'ost des Tatars et furent à prendre Damas". Quoted in "Histoire des Croisades III", Rene Grousset, p.586
- ^ Runciman, p.310
- ^ Amitai-Preiss, p. 32.
- ^ Jean Richard, p.428
- ^ Amin Maalouf, p.264
- ^ Tyerman, p.806
- ^ Amin Maalouf, p.262
- ^ The British historian Steven Runciman believes that Nablus and Gaza were occupied, but that Jerusalem itself was not taken by the Mongols. Runciman, p.308
- ^ "Hulegu informed Louis IX that he had handed over the Holy City to the Franks already, during the brief Mongol occupation in 1260 (although, as we have seen, this is nowhere indicated in any of the Muslim sources, still less in the Frankish appeals for help to the West), and the claim was reiterated in 1274 by Abaqa's envoys.", Jackson, p.174
- ^ Runciman, p. 308
- ^ "It happened that some men from Sidon and Belfort gathered together, went to the Saracens' villages and fields, looted them, killed many Saracens and took others into captivity together with a great deal of livestock. A certain nephew of Kit-Bugha who resided there, taking along but few cavalry, pursued the Christians who had done these things to tell them on his uncle's behalf to leave the booty. But some of the Christians attacked and killed him and some other Tartars. When Kit-Bugha learned of this, he immediately took the city of the Sidon and destroyed most of the walls [and killed as many Christians as he found. But the people of Sidon fled to an island, and only a few were slain. oe43]. Thereafter the Tartars no longer trusted the Christians, nor the Christians the Tartars." Fleur des Histoires d'Orient, Chap. 30 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- ^ Hindley, pp. 205-206
- ^ Nicolle, p. 47
- ^ Tyerman, p. 818
- ^ Grousset, p.656
- ^ "When he disembarked in Acre, Edward immediately sent envoys to Abagha (…) As he (Abagha) could not commit himself to the offensive, he ordered the Mongol forces stationned in Turkey under Samaghar to attack Syria in order to relieve the Crusaders" Jean Richard, p.446
- ^ "Edward was horrified at the state of affairs in Outremer. He knew that his own army was small, but he hoped to unite the Christians of the East into a formidable body and then to use the help of the Mongols in making an effective attack on Baibars", Runciman, p.335
- ^ 22.0 22.1 Grousset, p.653.
- ^ Runciman, p.336
- ^ "Et revindrent en Acre li message que mi sire Odouart et la Crestiente avoient envoies as Tartars por querre secors; et firent si bien la besoigne quil amenerent les Tartars et corurent toute la terre dantioche et de Halape de Haman et de La Chamele jusques a Cesaire la Grant. Et tuerent ce quil trouverent de Sarrazins", Estoire d'Eracles, Chap XIV （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- ^ Quoted in Grousset, p.653
- ^ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Runciman, p.336
- ^ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Demurger, pp. 142-143 "The Mongols pursued the retreating troops towards the south, but stopped at the level of Gaza".
- ^ Runciman, p.439
- ^ Demurger, p. 99
- ^ "For a brief period, some four months in all, the Mongol Il-Khan was de facto the lord of the Holy Land", Schein, p. 810
- ^ "Meanwhile the Mongol and Armenian troops raided the country as far south as Gaza." Schein, 1979, p. 810
- ^ Amitai, p. 247
- ^ Schein, 1979, p. 810
- ^ Amitai, p. 248
- ^ Phillips, p. 128. "Disillusionment came swiftly. Jerusalem had not been taken or even besieged; Ghazan evacuated Syria within a few weeks of its conquest probably because his horses were short of fodder. He attacked it again in 1301, and planned further campaigns for the next two years, but achieved nothing. His bitterness at the failure of the European powers to provide the military assistance he had asked for expressed itself in 1303 in yet another embassy to Philip IV and Edward I, to which Edward replied tactfully that he and Philip had been at war and could not send help."
- ^ Schein, 1979, p. 805
- ^ Schein, in her 1991 book mentioned in a footnote that the Mongol capture of Jerusalem was confirmed because they had removed a gate from the Dome of the Rock, and transferred it to Damascus. "The conquest of Jerusalem by the Mongols was confirmed by Niccolo of Poggibonsi who noted (Libro d'Oltramare 1346-1350, ed. P. B. Bagatti (Jerusalem 1945), 53, 92) that the Mongols removed a gate from the Dome of the Rock and had it transferred to Damascus. Schein, 1991, p. 163
- ^ "The conquest of Jerusalem by the Mongols was confirmed by Niccolo of Poggibonsi who noted (Libro d'Oltramare 1346-1350, ed. P. B. Bagatti (Jerusalem 1945), 53, 92) that the Mongols removed a gate from the Dome of the Rock and had it transferred to Damascus. Schein, 1991, p. 163
- ^ Denys Pringle, 1993, The Churches of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, p.106
- ^ Pringle, p.106
- ^ "In December 1299, he (合赞) vanquished the Mamluks at the Second Battle of Homs and captured Damascus, and even Jerusalem", Demurger, Les Templiers, 2007, p.84
- ^ "Mulay, a Mongol general who was effectively present in Jerusalem in 1299-1300", Demurger, Les Templiers, 2007, p. 84
- ^ Frédéric Luisetto, p.205-206 "Troops penetrated in Jerusalem and Hebron where they committed many massacres (...) In Hebron, a cross was even raised on top of the mosque of Abraham", also p.208 "We have knowledge of the violences perpetrated in Jerusalem and Damas"
- ^ Jotischky, The Crusaders and the Crusader States, p. 249
- ^ "The earliest letter was dated 19 March 1300 and addressed to Boniface VIII. Its contents suggest that it was probably written by the Doge Pietro Gradenigo (1289-1311)." - Schein, 1979, p. 814
- ^ 46.0 46.1 46.2 Schein, p. 815
- ^ Riley-Smith
- ^ Schein, p. 805
参考文献
中世纪文献
- Le Templier de Tyr (circa 1300). Chronicle du Templier de Tyr, Online （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） (Original French).
- Hayton of Corycus (1307). Flowers of the Histories of the East, Online (English translation).
- Estoire d'Eracles (circa 1300), Online （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） (Original French).
现代文献
- Amitai, Reuven. Mongol Raids into Palestine (AD 1260 and 1300). JRAS. 1987: 236–255.
- Amitai-Preiss, Reuven. Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War, 1260-1281. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 1995. ISBN 978-0521462266.
- Barber, Malcolm. The Trial of the Templars 2nd. University Press, Cambridge. 2001. ISBN 978-0-521-67236-8.
- Encyclopedia Iranica, Article on Franco-Persian relations
- Foltz, Richard (2000). "Religions of the Silk Road : overland trade and cultural exchange from antiquity to the fifteenth century". New York: St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 0-312-23338-8.
- Demurger, Alain. Jacques de Molay. Editions Payot&Rivages. 2007. ISBN 2228902357 （法语）.
- Hazard, Harry W. (editor). Volume III: The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries. A History of the Crusades. Kenneth M. Setton, general editor. The University of Wisconsin Press. 1975. ISBN 0-299-06670-3.
- Jackson, Peter. The Mongols and the West, 1221-1410. Longman. 2005. ISBN 0582368960.
- Lebédel, Claude. Les Croisades, origines et conséquences. Editions Ouest-France. 2006. ISBN 2737341361 （法语）.
- Newman, Sharan. Real History Behind the Templars. Berkley Publishing Group. 2006. ISBN 978-0-425-21533-3.
- Nicolle, David. The Crusades. Essential Histories. Osprey Publishing. 2001. ISBN 978-1-84176-179-4.
- Phillips, John Roland Seymour. The Medieval Expansion of Europe. Oxford University Press. 1998. ISBN 0198207409.
- Prawdin, Michael (pseudonym for Charol, Michael). Mongol Empire. Collier-Macmillan Canada. 1940/1961. ISBN 1412805198.
- Prawer, Joshua. The Crusaders' Kingdom: European Colonialism in the Middle Ages. Praeger. 1972. ISBN 9780297993971.
- Richard, Jean. Histoire des Croisades. Fayard. 1996. ISBN 2-213-59787-1.
- Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Crusades: A History 2nd. Yale Nota Bene. 1987, 2005. ISBN 0-300-10128-7.
- Runciman, Steven. A history of the Crusades 3. Penguin Books. 1987 (first published in 1952-1954). ISBN 9780140137057.
- Saunders, J. J. The History of the Mongol Conquests. University of Pennsylvania Press. 2001. ISBN 0812217667.
- Schein, Sylvia. Gesta Dei per Mongolos 1300. The Genesis of a Non-Event. The English Historical Review. 1979年10月, 94 (373): 805–819 [2009-09-23]. doi:10.1093/ehr/XCIV.CCCLXXIII.805. （原始内容存档于2022-01-05）.
- Schein, Sylvia. Fideles Crucis: The Papacy, the West, and the Recovery of the Holy Land. Clarendon. 1991. ISBN 0198221657.
- Schein, Sylvia. Gateway to the Heavenly City: crusader Jerusalem and the catholic West. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. 2005. ISBN 075460649X.
- Sinor, Denis. The Mongols in the West. Journal of Asian History. 1999, 33 (1). （原始内容存档于2015-02-26）.
- Turnbull, Stephen (1980). The Mongols. Osprey Publishing Ltd. 2004. ISBN 9780850453720.
- Weatherford, Jack. Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World. Three Rivers Press. 2004. ISBN 0-609-80964-4.