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瑟索克購地

維基百科,自由的百科全書
1944年為止巴勒斯坦猶太人購買土地地圖,深藍色代表當時由猶太國家基金擁有的土地,其中大部分以紅色虛線圈出的區域是在瑟索克購地中獲得的。

瑟索克購地是猶太人在早期移民巴勒斯坦時期於耶斯列谷海法灣以及巴勒斯坦託管地其他地區最大規模的土地購買。[1] [2]耶斯列谷被認為是巴勒斯坦土地最肥沃的地區。[3]

1946 年 2 月 25 日,在阿拉伯高級委員會提交給英美調查委員會的備忘錄中的一份非全面清單指出,瑟索克購地佔猶太人從在外地主購入的土地中的 58%。[4]

這些土地的新猶太人買家要求現有居民遷離土地。結果,許多巴勒斯坦阿拉伯佃農被驅逐,大約有20-25 個村莊被荒廢。[5]根據託管地法律,買家無需就此賠償,只有小部份被驅逐的居民獲得賠償。[6]

直到 1948 年,瑟索克家族及其合作夥伴賣地的總金額占猶太人在巴勒斯坦購買的全部土地的 22%。正如錫安主義領袖亞瑟·魯平於 1907 年首次提出,瑟索克購地對於巴勒斯坦猶太人定居點的領土連續性至關重要。[7]

背景

鄂圖曼帝國統治時期的巴勒斯坦,由於低地平原的環境惡劣和生活不安全,令人口不斷減少。然而這並非該地區獨有特徵,地中海北部和南部所有沿海地區都有此普遍情況。[8]錫安主義的猶太工人優先理念意味著儘可能將當地的阿拉伯勞動力排除於猶太人購入的土地。[9]

來自鄂圖曼政府的瑟索克購地

1872 年,鄂圖曼政府以大約 20,000 英鎊作價將耶斯列谷(阿拉伯語為 Marj ibn Amir)賣給了瑟索克家族。[10]瑟索克家族隨後繼續購得超過 400,000德南的土地(90,000 英畝或 364平方公里 )。[11][12]這種賣地持續了多年。[13]

根據社會運動家弗朗西斯·E·牛頓梳爾委員會的證詞指出瑟索克購地的起源:「……透過瑟索克向鄂圖曼政府提供的貸款,這些土地由瑟索克購入。這更像是一種抵押,瑟索克只是在收回借出的錢中十分之一的利息。土耳其政府從未打算要阿拉伯人離開這片土地。……在最初,瑟索克並沒有為擁有的土地申請地契,至後來瑟索克才向政府申請地契。」[14]

1878 年,探險家 Claude Reignier Conder 解釋如下:[15]

我們查明了一個展露政府不道德的的奇怪事實。政府因對一位名叫瑟索克的希臘銀行家負有債務,所以允許他以小得可笑的 20,000 英鎊額購買大平原的北半部和拿撒勒的一些村莊,總占地達 70 平方英里,二十個村莊的稅收總計為 4000 英鎊,將好壞收成年計算在內,平均收入不可能低於 12,000 英鎊。在瑟索克的管理下,耕作物品質提升了。假如這些土地能確保永久擁有,這財產肯定是非常寶貴的,但政府極有可能在有需要時再次徵收土地。農民將這次購地歸咎於俄羅斯的陰謀,他們深信這個可恨的敵人將他的貪婪目光投向了巴勒斯坦和作為宗教之都的耶路撒冷,並且一直忙於在此建立根據。

猶太人購地

瑟索克購地前和後的示意圖: A) 第一幅巴勒斯坦勘測地圖展示被出售的巴勒斯坦人村莊(藍色圈) ; B) 第二幅巴勒斯坦土地開發公司的地圖展示瑟索克購地(黃色)和一些隨後建立的猶太定居點。

早期討論

1891年,幾年前從俄羅斯移民到巴勒斯坦的錫安主義者約書亞·漢金展開收購耶斯列谷的磋商;後來當奧斯曼政府頒布禁止猶太人移民的法令時,磋商中止。 [16]

現代以色列的國父西奧多·赫茨爾在1897 年 3 月 10 日他的日記中提到瑟索克家族正與猶太殖民協會就購買 97 個巴勒斯坦村莊進行磋商:[17]

猶太殖民協會目前正在與一個希臘家族(我認為名叫瑟索克)進行磋商,以購買 97 個巴勒斯坦村莊。這些住在巴黎的希臘人把錢都賭輸了,並希望出售他們的房地產(根據 Willi Bambus 的說法,佔巴勒斯坦整個地區的3%),代價為 700 萬法郎。

世界錫安主義組織認為耶斯列谷是巴勒斯坦最具戰略性的地區,甚至比沿海地區更具吸引力,因為此地區可進行大規模的農業活動,大面積的購地可加速定居的進度。相反在沿海地區,可供購買的土地較小,土地相對較不肥沃。奧斯曼政府曾多次嘗試限制大規模購地和移民,但礙於歐洲戰勝國對奧斯曼帝國的投降條款施壓,這些限制並沒有持續多久。 [18]

1901 年猶太殖民協會購地

在耶路撒冷穆塔薩勒夫被禁止購地後,猶太殖民協會於1901 年進行了第一次重大收購,從瑟索克家族及其合作夥伴手中購入了巴勒斯坦北部提比里亞附近 31,500 德南的土地。 [19]

1910 – 1911 年富拉事件

1911 年漫畫:位於耶斯列谷地區的十字軍城堡暗示與十字軍的戰鬥。 [20]薩拉丁(右)抗議瑟索克出售艾爾富拉;約書亞·漢金 (左)把鈔票提出。海法政治諷刺報章al Himara al Qahira (「頑固的驢」)。

另一宗早期錫安主義者從瑟索克家族的土地收購被稱為「富拉事件」(有時被錯誤地稱為「阿富拉事件」)。 1910-11 年,艾利亞斯·瑟索克將位於耶斯列谷拿撒勒山腳的艾爾富拉[21]賣給猶太國家基金。巴勒斯坦農民拒絕離開這片土地,拿撒勒凱馬坎(地方長官) Shukri al-Asali 奮力推翻收購,並拒絕確認交易。 [21]村民們自行向大維齊爾遞交了一份請願書,投訴遭到壓迫。在請願書中,他們聲稱艾利亞斯·瑟索克和一個中間人將他們的土地賣給了他們稱為「錫安主義者」和「摩西宗教之子」( siyonist musevi )的人,這些人不是鄂圖曼帝國的子民,此交易將剝奪1000名村民的生計。 [21]在早期關於土地糾紛的請願書中,請願者習慣稱猶太人為「以色列人」( Isra'iliyyun )。[21]

這次反對猶太人購地的政治活動被視為「第一個反對錫安主義日益增長的聯合行動」和「第一次世界大戰爆發前發生的最重要的反錫安主義事件」[22]

1918 年購地

鄂圖曼帝國拒絕批准大量購地,直至第一次世界大戰開始前,瑟索克家族無法再向猶太買家出售大量土地。1912 年,巴勒斯坦土地開發公司(PLDC) 已準備好從瑟索克家族購入耶斯列谷的大片土地。由於第一次世界大戰爆發,交易沒有完成。[23] 1918 年 12 月 18 日,協議正式簽訂,交易涵蓋耶斯列谷 71,356 德南土地,包括泰勒阿達希姆[24]

1921-1925 年購地和村莊的荒廢

在英國託管開始後,1920 年的土地轉讓條例取消了所有限制。[25] 1921 至 1925 年間,美國錫安聯邦(AZC)以作價大約75 萬英鎊從瑟索克家族購入 80,000 畝(320平方公里)耶斯列谷的土地予,用作重新安置居住在這片土地上的猶太人以及來自較遠地區的猶太人。[26] 1924 年,巴勒斯坦猶太人殖民協會(PICA) 成立,接替了猶太人殖民協會的角色,PICA 成為巴勒斯坦最大的猶太地主。與此同時,PLDC 充當了猶太國家基金的採購單位。[27]猶太國家基金領導人梅納罕·烏西什金主張優先購買這些土地,因為此策略烏西什金遭到其他董事會成員的排斥,原因是昂貴的收購開支佔用了基金接下來十年中大部分的資金。[28]

英國託管時期,土地法被改寫,巴勒斯坦農民被英國當局視為佃農。即使面對當地人的反對,當局仍然維護瑟索克家族出售土地和遷移土地上的人口的權利。在一些被收購的村莊,特別是居住在耶斯列谷村莊的租戶,在土地被出售後頓時流離失所。[29][25]新猶太買家要求現有人口遷離,結果,巴勒斯坦阿拉伯佃農被驅逐,根據新的託管地法律,買家無需就此賠償,只有小部份被驅逐的居民獲得賠償。[6]有被驅逐的租戶(最大規模購地中的1,746 個阿拉伯農民家庭,8,730 人)獲得了每人 17 美元的賠償。[30][31]

儘管土地已被出售(例如在阿富拉),一些前租戶拒絕搬遷。[32]然而,在伊舒夫的土地勞動理念的推動下,新業主認為這些農民留在供猶太勞工勞動的土地作為租戶是不合適的。英國警察不得不驅逐一些被無家可歸的人到沿海區尋找新工作,其中大多數人最終住在雅法海法邊緣的棚戶區

瑟索克購地成為 1930 年梳爾委員會的焦點。[33]前拿撒勒市長的兒子、巴勒斯坦裔美國人 Saleem Raji Farah ,準備了一份詳細的瑟索克購地列表,作為委員會的證據,顯示交易前住在 240,000 德南的土地上的 1,746 個家庭因猶太人購地而流離失所:[33] [34] [33] [34][35]

村莊 地區 德南 費丹 家庭 價錢 購地年份 賣方 現今地點
Tel-el-Adas 拿撒勒 22,000 120 150 £40,000 1921 George Lutfalah Sursock 後人 泰勒阿達希姆
Jalud and Tel el Fer 30,000 230 280 £191,000 1921 Najeeb 與 Albert Sursock 哈律泉
Mahloul 16,000 72 90 £47,000 以色列國防軍基地 (拿哈拉旁)
Sofsafe-Ain-Sheika 卡法夏何列沙
Ain-Beida & Mokbey 3,000 20 25 £9,000 莫沙夫約念
Jinjar 4,000 20 25 £13,000 吉尼嘉
Rob-el-Nasreh 7,000 40 50 £21,000 米爾札
Afule 16,000 90 130 £56,000 1924 Michel Ibrahim Sursock 後人 阿富拉
Jabata 11,000 72 90 £32,000 1925 Kaleels 與 Jobran Sursock 後人 Gvat
Kneifis 9,000 50 60 £26,000 撒立
Sulam (two thirds only) 6,000 35 45 £40,000 1925 Kaleels 與 Jobran Sursock 後人和其合作夥伴 書念
Jedro 阿卡 52,000 250 300 £15,000 1925 Alfred Sursock 亞姆村
Kordaneh 1,500 15 20 £9,000 特拉亞弗
Kefr Etta 10,000 60 75 £3,000 阿塔市
Majdal 9,000 50 70 £27,000 Ramat Yohanan
Jaida 海法 15,000 75 110 £45,000 1925 圖埃尼家族後人 (瑟索克家族的合作夥伴) 拉馬耶西
Tel-el-Shemmam 8,000 40 50 £25,000 卡法約書亞
小計(撇除以下村莊) 219,500 1,239 1,570 599,000
Hartieh 海法 n.a. 50 60 n.a. 1925 Alexander Sursock Sha'ar HaAmakim
Sheikh Bureik n.a. 40 50 n.a. 貝特沙瑞姆
Harbaj n.a. 70 90 n.a. 卡法哈西迪
Kiskis and Tabon n.a. 30 36 n.a. 1925 Matta Farah 後人 (瑟索克家族的合作夥伴) 迪方鎮

瑟索克家族另外亦出售了包括以下村莊:[29]

  • Khirbat al-Shuna
  • Malhamiyah (現今Menahemia ) [36]

猶太人定居點

購買土地後,猶太農民建立了第一個現代定居點,即今天的阿夫拉城。猶太人將沼澤抽乾了,使幾個世紀以來不能居住的的土地得以進一步開發。1921 年 9 月 11 日,以色列的第一個莫沙夫拿哈拉正式建立。[37]在拿哈拉長大的軍事家摩西·達揚於1969年提起該莫沙夫以及其他三個屬於瑟索克購地的地方——是「這個國家的沒有一個地方以前是沒有阿拉伯人居住的」的例子:[38]

我們來到這個國家時,這片土地早已住滿阿拉伯人,又我們正在這裡建立一個希伯來、猶太人的國家……猶太人的村莊建在阿拉伯人村莊的土地上。你甚至不知道這些阿拉伯人村莊的名字,但我不會責怪你,因為這些地理書本已不再存在,就連這些阿拉伯人村莊也不再存在。拿哈拉在Mahalul土地中豎立,Gvat 以前是 Jibta、撒立以前是 Haneifs,卡法約書亞以前是 Tell Shaman. 這個國家的沒有一個地方以前是沒有阿拉伯人居住的。

參考

  1. ^ Laurens, Henry. La Question de Palestine. vol.2 (Une mission sacrée de civilisation). Paris: Fayard. 2002: 143–148. ISBN 2-213-61251-X (法語). 
  2. ^ Avneri, Arieh L. The Claim of Dispossession : Jewish Land-Settlement and the Arabs 1878–1948. New Brunswick (USA) and London. 1984: 117–130. ISBN 0-87855-964-7. 
  3. ^ Hadawi 1988,第72頁: "In ancient times, Esdraelon was the granary of the country, and is regarded by the Palestinians as the most fertile tract of land in Palestine . The bitterness felt owing to the sale of large areas by the absentee Sursock family to the Jews and the displacement of the Arab tenants remained unresolved."
  4. ^ Hadawi 1988,第66頁: "266,500 dunums out of a total of 461,250 then identified. Note that the memorandum, prepared by Dr. Yusif Sayegh, was compiled from a field survey conducted in only part of Palestine. Sayegh explained: 「The real total area sold this way is definitely more. The fuller the data, the less the blame to attach to Palestinian Arabs」".
  5. ^ Mark Sanagan. Lightning through the Clouds: ʿIzz al-Din al-Qassam and the Making of the Modern Middle East. University of Texas Press. 3 May 2020: 112–113 [2021-08-24]. ISBN 978-1-4773-2058-7. (原始內容存檔於2021-08-24). 
  6. ^ 6.0 6.1 Palestine: Report on Immigration, Land Settlement and Development - UK Government report - Non-UN document (see attached also as PDF file at the end of the doc) (1 October 1930). unispal.un.org. [2021-08-24]. (原始內容存檔於2021-06-16). 
  7. ^ Khalidi 1997,第113頁: "more than 240,000 dunums... sold by the Sursuq family of Beirut and a number of their Lebanese partners in 1924–25. Together with the other lands in the Marj Ibn 『Amir (such as al-Fula), sold to the Zionists before 1914 by the Sursuqs and their business partners... this single bloc in one region amounts to 313,000 dunums, or more than 22 percent of all the land purchased by Jews in Palestine until 1948. This would seem to contradict Stein’s assertion that the Marj Ibn 『Amir sale had 「important sig nificance, but certainly not the political value given it by many writers.」 And these figures on the size of this sale do not even touch on the purchase’s vital importance in terms of the territorial continuity of Jewish settlement in Palestine, which was first pointed out by Ruppin in 1907, and is correctly emphasized by Gershon Shafir."
  8. ^ Henry Laurens, La Question de Palestine, Fayard 2002 p.143.
  9. ^ Henry Laurens 2002 p.126.
  10. ^ Anonymous. Personal recollections of Turkish misrule and corruption in Syria, by a Syrian. 1877: 14. 
  11. ^ Frantzman, Seth J.; Kark, Ruth. Bedouin Settlement in Late Ottoman and British Mandatory Palestine: Influence on the Cultural and Environmental Landscape, 1870–1948. New Middle Eastern Studies. 2011, 1: 1–22 [p. 8]. doi:10.29311/nmes.v1i0.2600. 
  12. ^ Zionist Land Broker. islam.ru. [November 12, 2015]. (原始內容存檔於2021-06-06). 
  13. ^ LIFE IN MODERN PALESTINE. archive.org. 
  14. ^ Palestine Commission on the Disturbances of August, 1929, Volume 1, p.433
  15. ^ Conder, Claude Reignier. Tent Work in Palestine: A Record of Discovery and Adventure. R. Bentley & Son. 1878: 165–66 [2021-08-24]. (原始內容存檔於2021-08-28). 
  16. ^ Ruppin, Arthur. Three Decades of Palestine: Speeches and Papers on the Upbuilding of the Jewish National Home. Greenwood Press. 1975: 182 [2021-08-24]. ISBN 978-0-8371-2629-6. (原始內容存檔於2021-08-24). In order to execute this plan the Jaffa office communicated with Messrs. Kalvariski and Joshua Hankin. The latter, then a young man of twenty-five had already demonstrated his skill in such negotiations in the acquisition of land for the colonies Rehoboth and Hederah. By energetic work he succeeded, in 1891, in reaching an agreement with large owners in the Jezreel Valley Emek Jezreel and the Plain of Acco for the purchase of 160,000 dunams [160 km²] at 15 francs per dunam [15,000 franc/km²]....Before the consummation of the agreement, however the Turkish Government, alarmed by the increasing inflow of Russian Jews, prohibited Jewish immigration entirely. This blow proved disastrous for the negotiations. The Russian societies formed for the purposes of purchasing land were dissolved, failed to send in the money they had promised, and the entire magnificent project fell through...It was only in 1910 that Hankin – who, in the meanwhile, had purchased land in Lower Galilee for the ICA – resumed his negotiations for land in the Emek. 
  17. ^ The Complete Diaries of Theodor Herzl, ed. Raphael Patai, Herzl Press and Thomas Yoseloff, New York-London, vol.2, p.519
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  19. ^ Neville J. Mandel. The Arabs and Zionism Before World War I. University of California Press. 1976: 22. ISBN 978-0-520-02466-3. In 1897, the year of the first Zionist Congress, a commission was set up in Jerusalem to scrutinise land sales to Jews... the commission effectively halted land sales to Jews in the Mutasarriflik for the next few years. Thus, when the Jewish Colonization Association (JCA — an organisation founded by Baron Maurice de Hirsch in 1891 and un-connected with the Zionist Movement) began to interest itself in Palestine in 1896, it very quickly discovered that the possibilities of buying land were wider in the north of the country... The breakthrough, from JCA's point of view, came in 1901 when the Council of Ministers ruled that JCA’s President, Narcisse Leven, could, as a foreigner, buy land in the Vilayet of Beirut under the Ottoman Land Code of 1867, provided that he undertook not to install foreign Jews on it. The very fact that this concession could be granted shortly after the 1901 regulations went into force points to another weakness in the Government's handling of its own policy. Under this concession, JCA acquired 31,500 dunams of land near Tiberias in the early part of 1901, mainly from the Sursuq family of Beirut. 
  20. ^ Khalid A. Sulaiman. Palestine and Modern Arab Poetry. Zed Books. 1984: 9 [2021-08-24]. ISBN 978-0-86232-238-0. (原始內容存檔於2021-11-16). 
  21. ^ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 Ben-Bassat,Yuval, Reactions to Zionist Activity in Palestine before and after the Young Turk Revolution of 1908 as Reflected in Petitions to Istanbul,'頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館Middle Eastern Studies, May 2013,volume =49,3, pp=349–363, pp.355–356
  22. ^ Emanuel Beska, 2014, Political Opposition to Zionism in Palestine and Greater Syria: 1910–1911 as a Turning Point頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館): "In 1910, the Lebanese landlord Najib Ibrahim al-Asfar began to seek a long-term lease (for a period of 95 years) of the extensive crown lands in Palestine and Syria. A false rumor spread that al-Asfar was acting in the interest of the Zionists... al-Karmil became the most important source of information on Zionist endeavors for other Arabic newspapers in Palestine and beyond. Khayriyya Qasimiyya rightly labels its campaign against the lease of crown lands as 「the first concerted action against the growing Zionist activities.」 As the debate regarding the crown lands was still under way another, more important event started to develop. The sale of lands of the village of al-Fula to the Jewish National Fund can be considered in this context the most significant event that took place in the period before the outbreak of the First World War. The lands of al-Fula belonged to Ilyas Sursuq, the wealthy Greek Orthodox banker, merchant, and landowner from Beirut, who in 1910 reached a deal on their sale with the Zionists... The peasant inhabitants refused to leave their village and were supported in their resistance by the qa』immaqam (district governor) of Nazareth, Shukri al-『Asali (1878–1916), who was resolutely opposed to this transaction and became a major protagonist in the affair."
  23. ^ Glass 2018,第194頁.
  24. ^ Glass 2018,第196-197頁.
  25. ^ 25.0 25.1 Smith, Barbara Jean. The Roots of Separatism in Palestine: British Economic Policy, 1920–1929. Syracuse University Press. 1993: 96–97. ISBN 0-8156-2578-2. 
  26. ^ Safarix.com 網際網路檔案館存檔,存檔日期11 February 2007., pg. 49
  27. ^ Norman, Theodore (1985). An Outstretched Arm: A History of the Jewish Colonization Association. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
  28. ^ Stein, Kenneth W. Jewish National Fund: Land Purchase Methods and Priorities, 1924–1939. Middle Eastern Studies. 1984, 20 (2): 190–205 [p. 194]. JSTOR 4282996. 
  29. ^ 29.0 29.1 Stein, Kenneth W. The Land Question in Palestine, 1917–1939. University of North Carolina Press. 1987: 60. ISBN 0-8078-1579-9. 
  30. ^ Shaw Commission Report 1930 (Cmd.3530), p. 118
  31. ^ Tessler, Mark A. A History of the Israeli–Palestinian Conflict. Indiana University Press. 1994: 177. ISBN 0-253-35848-5. The Sursock deal is known to have involved the eviction of about 8000 tenants 'compensated' at three pounds ten shillings [about $17] a head. 
  32. ^ Buying the Emek by Arthur Ruppin, 1929 (with an introduction). Zionism-israel.com. [24 March 2013]. (原始內容存檔於2021-03-29). 
  33. ^ 33.0 33.1 33.2 ESCO Foundation 1947,第616頁.
  34. ^ 34.0 34.1 Hadawi 1970,第27頁.
  35. ^ List of villages sold by Sursocks and their partners to the Zionists since British occupation of Palestine, evidence to the Shaw Commission, 1930, p.1074, exhibit 71
  36. ^ Said and Hitchens, 2001, p. 217頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館); notes 28, 29, on p. 232
  37. ^ Bernard Reich and David H. Goldberg. Historical Dictionary of Israel 2. Scarecrow Press. 2008: 329. 
  38. ^ Rogan, E.; Shlaim, A. The War for Palestine: Rewriting the History of 1948. Cambridge University Press. 2001: 207 [2021-08-24]. ISBN 0-521-79476-5. (原始內容存檔於2021-08-24). 

 

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