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Philosophy of space and time is the branch of 哲学 concerned with the issues surrounding the 本体论 (哲学), 知识论, and character of space and time. While such ideas have been central to philosophy from its inception, the philosophy of space and time was both an inspiration for and a central aspect of early 分析哲學. The subject focuses on a number of basic issues, including whether time and space exist independently of the mind, whether they exist independently of one another, what accounts for time's apparently unidirectional flow, whether times other than the present moment exist, and questions about the nature of identity (particularly the nature of identity over time).

Ancient and medieval views

The earliest recorded 西方哲学 of time was expounded by the 古埃及ian thinker 普塔霍特普 (c. 2650–2600 BC), who said, "Do not lessen the time of following desire, for the wasting of time is an abomination to the spirit." The 吠陀, the earliest texts on 印度哲学 and Hindu philosophy英语Hindu philosophy, dating back to the late 前2千纪, describe ancient Hindu cosmology英语Hindu cosmology, in which the 宇宙 goes through repeated cycles of creation, destruction, and rebirth, with each cycle lasting 4,320,000 years.[1] 古典哲学 古希腊哲学, including Parmenides and 赫拉克利特, wrote essays on the nature of time.[2]

印加帝國 regarded space and time as a single concept, named pacha (奇楚瓦語pacha, 艾馬拉語pacha).[3][4][5]

Plato, in the 蒂邁歐篇, identified time with the period of motion of the heavenly bodies, and space as that in which things come to be. Aristotle, in Book IV of his 物理学 (亚里士多德), defined time as the number of changes with respect to before and after, and the place of an object as the innermost motionless boundary of that which surrounds it.

In Book 11 of 希波的奥古斯丁 Confessions英语Confessions (St. Augustine), he ruminates on the nature of time, asking, "What then is time? If no one asks me, I know: if I wish to explain it to one that asketh, I know not." He goes on to comment on the difficulty of thinking about time, pointing out the inaccuracy of common speech: "For but few things are there of which we speak properly; of most things we speak improperly, still the things intended are understood." [6] But Augustine presented the first philosophical argument for the reality of Creation (against Aristotle) in the context of his discussion of time, saying that knowledge of time depends on the knowledge of the movement of things, and therefore time cannot be where there are no creatures to measure its passing (Confessions Book XI ¶30; City of God Book XI ch.6).

In contrast to ancient Greek philosophers who believed that the universe had an infinite past with no beginning, 中世紀哲學 and 神學 developed the concept of the universe having a finite past with a beginning, now known as Temporal finitism英语Temporal finitism. The 基督教哲学 John Philoponus英语John Philoponus presented early arguments, adopted by later Christian philosophers and theologians of the form "argument from the impossibility of the existence of an actual infinite", which states:[7]

"An actual infinite cannot exist."
"An infinite temporal regress of events is an actual infinite."
"∴ An infinite temporal regress of events cannot exist."

In the early 11th century, the Muslim physicist英语Islamic physics 海什木 (Alhacen or Alhazen) discussed space perception英语Depth perception and its 知识论 implications in his Book of Optics英语Book of Optics (1021), he also rejected Aristotle's definition of topos (Physics IV) by way of geometric demonstrations and defined place as a mathematical spatial extension.[8] His 实验al proof of the intro-mission model of vision led to changes in the understanding of the 视知觉 of space, contrary to the previous emission theory of vision英语Emission theory (vision) supported by Euclid and 克劳狄乌斯·托勒密. In "tying the visual perception of space to prior bodily experience, Alhacen unequivocally rejected the intuitiveness of spatial perception and, therefore, the autonomy of vision. Without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation, sight can tell us next to nothing about such things."[9]

Realism and anti-realism

A traditional 實在論 position in 本体论 (哲学) is that time and space have existence apart from the human mind. 唯心主義, by contrast, deny or doubt the existence of objects independent of the mind. Some anti-realists英语anti-realism, whose ontological position is that objects outside the mind do exist, nevertheless doubt the independent existence of time and space.

In 1781, 伊曼努尔·康德 published the 纯粹理性批判, one of the most influential works in the history of the philosophy of space and time. He describes time as an a priori英语A priori and a posteriori notion that, together with other a priori notions such as space, allows us to comprehend sense experience英语empirical evidence. Kant denies that either space or time are substance英语Substance theory, entities in themselves, or learned by experience; he holds, rather, that both are elements of a systematic framework we use to structure our experience. Spatial 量度s are used to 量 (物理) how far apart 物体s are, and temporal measurements are used to quantitatively compare the interval between (or duration of) 时空s. Although space and time are held to be transcendentally ideal in this sense, they are also empirically real—that is, not mere illusions.

Idealist writers, such as J. M. E. McTaggart英语J. M. E. McTaggart in 時間的不實在性, have argued that time is an illusion (see also The flow of time英语Philosophy of space and time#The flow of time, below).

The writers discussed here are for the most part realists in this regard; for instance, 戈特弗里德·莱布尼茨 held that his 單子論s existed, at least independently of the mind of the observer.

Absolutism and relationalism

Leibniz and Newton

The great debate between defining notions of space and time as real objects themselves (absolute), or mere orderings upon actual objects (relational英语relationalism), began between physicists Isaac Newton (via his spokesman, Samuel Clarke) and Gottfried 戈特弗里德·莱布尼茨 in the papers of the Leibniz–Clarke correspondence英语Leibniz–Clarke correspondence.

Arguing against the absolutist position, Leibniz offers a number of 思想實驗s with the purpose of showing that there is contradiction in assuming the existence of facts such as absolute location and velocity. These arguments trade heavily on two principles central to his philosophy: the 充足理由律 and the identity of indiscernibles英语identity of indiscernibles. The principle of sufficient reason holds that for every fact, there is a reason that is sufficient to explain what and why it is the way it is and not otherwise. The identity of indiscernibles states that if there is no way of telling two entities apart, then they are one and the same thing.

The example Leibniz uses involves two proposed universes situated in absolute space. The only discernible difference between them is that the latter is positioned five feet to the left of the first. The example is only possible if such a thing as absolute space exists. Such a situation, however, is not possible, according to Leibniz, for if it were, a universe's position in absolute space would have no sufficient reason, as it might very well have been anywhere else. Therefore, it contradicts the principle of sufficient reason, and there could exist two distinct universes that were in all ways indiscernible, thus contradicting the identity of indiscernibles.

Standing out in Clarke's (and Newton's) response to Leibniz's arguments is the bucket argument英语bucket argument: Water in a bucket, hung from a rope and set to spin, will start with a flat surface. As the water begins to spin in the bucket, the surface of the water will become concave. If the bucket is stopped, the water will continue to spin, and while the spin continues, the surface will remain concave. The concave surface is apparently not the result of the interaction of the bucket and the water, since the surface is flat when the bucket first starts to spin, it becomes concave as the water starts to spin, and it remains concave as the bucket stops.

In this response, Clarke argues for the necessity of the existence of 絕對時空 to account for phenomena like rotation and acceleration that cannot be accounted for on a purely relationalist account英语relationalism. Clarke argues that since the curvature of the water occurs in the rotating bucket as well as in the stationary bucket containing spinning water, it can only be explained by stating that the water is rotating in relation to the presence of some third thing—absolute space.

Leibniz describes a space that exists only as a relation between objects, and which has no existence apart from the existence of those objects. Motion exists only as a relation between those objects. Newtonian space provided the absolute frame of reference within which objects can have motion. In Newton's system, the frame of reference exists independently of the objects contained within it. These objects can be described as moving in relation to space itself. For many centuries, the evidence of a concave water surface held authority.

Mach

Another important figure in this debate is 19th-century physicist Ernst Mach. While he did not deny the existence of phenomena like that seen in the bucket argument, he still denied the absolutist conclusion by offering a different answer as to what the bucket was rotating in relation to: the fixed stars英语fixed stars.

Mach suggested that thought experiments like the bucket argument are problematic. If we were to imagine a universe that only contains a bucket, on Newton's account, this bucket could be set to spin relative to absolute space, and the water it contained would form the characteristic concave surface. But in the absence of anything else in the universe, it would be difficult to confirm that the bucket was indeed spinning. It seems equally possible that the surface of the water in the bucket would remain flat.

Mach argued that, in effect, the water experiment in an otherwise empty universe would remain flat. But if another object were introduced into this universe, perhaps a distant star, there would now be something relative to which the bucket could be seen as rotating. The water inside the bucket could possibly have a slight curve. To account for the curve that we observe, an increase in the number of objects in the universe also increases the curvature in the water. Mach argued that the momentum of an object, whether angular or linear, exists as a result of the sum of the effects of other objects in the universe (马赫原理).

Einstein

Albert Einstein proposed that the laws of physics should be based on the 相对性原理. This principle holds that the rules of physics must be the same for all observers, regardless of the frame of reference that is used, and that light propagates at the same speed in all reference frames. This theory was motivated by 馬克士威方程組, which show that electromagnetic waves propagate in a vacuum at the 光速. However, Maxwell's equations give no indication of what this speed is relative to. Prior to Einstein, it was thought that this speed was relative to a fixed medium, called the 以太. In contrast, the theory of special relativity postulates that light propagates at the speed of light in all inertial frames, and examines the implications of this postulate.

All attempts to measure any speed relative to this ether failed, which can be seen as a confirmation of Einstein's postulate that light propagates at the same speed in all reference frames. 狭义相对论 is a formalization of the principle of relativity that does not contain a privileged inertial frame of reference, such as the luminiferous ether or absolute space, from which Einstein inferred that no such frame exists.

Einstein generalized relativity to frames of reference that were non-inertial. He achieved this by positing the 等效原理, which states that the force felt by an observer in a given gravitational field and that felt by an observer in an accelerating frame of reference are indistinguishable. This led to the conclusion that the mass of an object warps the geometry of the space-time surrounding it, as described in 爱因斯坦场方程s.

In classical physics, an inertial reference frame is one in which an object that experiences no forces does not accelerate. In general relativity, an inertial frame of reference is one that is following a geodesic英语Geodesic (general relativity) of space-time. An object that moves against a geodesic experiences a force. An object in 自由落體 does not experience a force, because it is following a geodesic. An object standing on the earth, however, will experience a force, as it is being held against the geodesic by the surface of the planet. In light of this, the bucket of water rotating in empty space will experience a force because it rotates with respect to the geodesic. The water will become concave, not because it is rotating with respect to the distant stars, but because it is rotating with respect to the geodesic.

Einstein partially advocates 马赫原理 in that distant stars explain inertia because they provide the gravitational field against which acceleration and inertia occur. But contrary to Leibniz's account, this warped space-time is as integral a part of an object as are its other defining characteristics, such as volume and mass. If one holds, contrary to idealist beliefs, that objects exist independently of the mind, it seems that relativistics commits them to also hold that space and temporality have exactly the same type of independent existence.

Conventionalism

The position of conventionalism states that there is no fact of the matter as to the geometry of space and time, but that it is decided by convention. The first proponent of such a view, Henri Poincaré, reacting to the creation of the new 非欧几里得几何, argued that which geometry applied to a space was decided by convention, since different geometries will describe a set of objects equally well, based on considerations from his sphere-world英语sphere-world.

This view was developed and updated to include considerations from relativistic physics by 赖欣巴哈. Reichenbach's conventionalism, applying to space and time, focuses around the idea of coordinative definition英语coordinative definition.

Coordinative definition has two major features. The first has to do with coordinating units of length with certain physical objects. This is motivated by the fact that we can never directly apprehend length. Instead we must choose some physical object, say the Standard Metre at the 國際度量衡局 (International Bureau of Weights and Measures), or the 波长 of to stand in as our unit of length. The second feature deals with separated objects. Although we can, presumably, directly test the equality of length of two measuring rods when they are next to one another, we can not find out as much for two rods distant from one another. Even supposing that two rods, whenever brought near to one another are seen to be equal in length, we are not justified in stating that they are always equal in length. This impossibility undermines our ability to decide the equality of length of two distant objects. Sameness of length, to the contrary, must be set by definition.

Such a use of coordinative definition is in effect, on Reichenbach's conventionalism, in the General Theory of Relativity where light is assumed, i.e. not discovered, to mark out equal distances in equal times. After this setting of coordinative definition, however, the geometry of spacetime is set.

As in the absolutism/relationalism debate, contemporary philosophy is still in disagreement as to the correctness of the conventionalist doctrine. While conventionalism still holds many proponents, cutting criticisms concerning the coherence of Reichenbach's doctrine of coordinative definition have led many to see the conventionalist view as untenable.

Structure of space-time

Building from a mix of insights from the historical debates of absolutism and conventionalism as well as reflecting on the import of the technical apparatus of the General Theory of Relativity, details as to the structure of 时空 have made up a large proportion of discussion within the philosophy of space and time, as well as the 物理哲学. The following is a short list of topics.

Relativity of simultaneity

According to 狭义相对论 each point in the universe can have a different set of events that compose its present instant. This has been used in the Rietdijk–Putnam argument英语Rietdijk–Putnam argument to demonstrate that relativity predicts a block universe英语Eternalism (philosophy of time) in which events are fixed in four dimensions.[來源請求]

Invariance vs. covariance

Bringing to bear the lessons of the absolutism/relationalism debate with the powerful mathematical tools invented in the 19th and 20th century, Michael Friedman英语Michael Friedman (philosopher) draws a distinction between invariance upon mathematical transformation英语Transformation (mathematics) and covariance upon transformation.

Invariance, or symmetry, applies to objects, i.e. the 空間對稱群 of a space-time theory designates what features of objects are invariant, or absolute, and which are dynamical, or variable.

Covariance applies to formulations of theories, i.e. the designates in which range of 坐標系s the laws of physics hold.

This distinction can be illustrated by revisiting Leibniz's thought experiment, in which the universe is shifted over five feet. In this example the position of an object is seen not to be a property of that object, i.e. location is not invariant. Similarly, the covariance group for 经典力学 will be any coordinate systems that are obtained from one another by shifts in position as well as other translations allowed by a 伽利略变换.

In the classical case, the invariance, or symmetry, group and the covariance group coincide, but, interestingly enough, they part ways in relativistic physics. The symmetry group of the general theory of relativity includes all differentiable transformations, i.e., all properties of an object are dynamical, in other words there are no absolute objects. The formulations of the general theory of relativity, unlike those of classical mechanics, do not share a standard, i.e., there is no single formulation paired with transformations. As such the covariance group of the general theory of relativity is just the covariance group of every theory.

Historical frameworks

A further application of the modern mathematical methods, in league with the idea of invariance and covariance groups, is to try to interpret historical views of space and time in modern, mathematical language.

In these translations, a theory of space and time is seen as a 流形 paired with 向量空间, the more vector spaces the more facts there are about objects in that theory. The historical development of spacetime theories is generally seen to start from a position where many facts about objects are incorporated in that theory, and as history progresses, more and more structure is removed.

For example, Aristotelian space and time has both absolute position and special places, such as the center of the cosmos, and the circumference. Newtonian space and time has absolute position and is Galilean invariant英语Galilean invariance, but does not have special positions.

Holes

With the general theory of relativity, the traditional debate between absolutism and relationalism has been shifted to whether spacetime is a substance, since the general theory of relativity largely rules out the existence of, e.g., absolute positions. One powerful argument against spacetime substantivalism, offered by John Earman英语John Earman is known as the "空穴論證".

This is a technical mathematical argument but can be paraphrased as follows:

Define a function d as the 恆等函數 over all elements over the manifold M, excepting a small 邻域 H belonging to M. Over H d comes to differ from identity by a 光滑函数.

With use of this function d we can construct two 数学模型s, where the second is generated by applying d to proper elements of the first, such that the two models are identical prior to the time t=0, where t is a time function created by a 叶状结构 of spacetime, but differ after t=0.

These considerations show that, since substantivalism allows the construction of holes, that the universe must, on that view, be indeterministic. Which, Earman argues, is a case against substantivalism, as the case between determinism or indeterminism should be a question of physics, not of our commitment to substantivalism.

Direction of time

The problem of the 时间箭头 arises directly from two contradictory facts. Firstly, the fundamental physical laws are time-reversal 不變量; if a cinematographic film were taken of any process describable by means of the aforementioned laws and then played backwards, it would still portray a physically possible process. Secondly, our experience of time, at the 宏观 level, is not time-reversal invariant.[10] Glasses can fall and break, but shards of glass cannot reassemble and fly up onto tables. We have memories of the past, and none of the future. We feel we can't change the past but can influence the future.

Causation solution

One solution to this problem takes a 形而上学 view, in which the direction of time follows from an asymmetry of 因果关系. We know more about the past because the elements of the past are causes for the effect that is our perception. We feel we can't affect the past and can affect the future because we can't affect the past and can affect the future.

There are two main objections to this view. First is the problem of distinguishing the cause from the effect in a non-arbitrary way. The use of causation in constructing a temporal ordering could easily become circular. The second problem with this view is its explanatory power. While the causation account, if successful, may account for some time-asymmetric phenomena like perception and action, it does not account for many others.

However, asymmetry of causation can be observed in a non-arbitrary way which is not metaphysical in the case of a human hand dropping a cup of water which smashes into fragments on a hard floor, spilling the liquid. In this order, the causes of the resultant pattern of cup fragments and water spill is easily attributable in terms of the trajectory of the cup, irregularities in its structure, angle of its impact on the floor, etc. However, applying the same event in reverse, it is difficult to explain why the various pieces of the cup should fly up into the human hand and reassemble precisely into the shape of a cup, or why the water should position itself entirely within the cup. The causes of the resultant structure and shape of the cup and the encapsulation of the water by the hand within the cup are not easily attributable, as neither hand nor floor can achieve such formations of the cup or water. This asymmetry is perceivable on account of two features: i) the relationship between the agent capacities of the human hand (i.e., what it is and is not capable of and what it is for) and non-animal agency (i.e., what floors are and are not capable of and what they are for) and ii) that the pieces of cup came to possess exactly the nature and number of those of a cup before assembling. In short, such asymmetry is attributable to the relationship between temporal direction on the one hand and the implications of form and functional capacity on the other.

The application of these ideas of form and functional capacity only dictates temporal direction in relation to complex scenarios involving specific, non-metaphysical agency which is not merely dependent on human perception of time. However, this last observation in itself is not sufficient to invalidate the implications of the example for the progressive nature of time in general.

Thermodynamics solution

The second major family of solutions to this problem, and by far the one that has generated the most literature, finds the existence of the direction of time as relating to the nature of thermodynamics.

The answer from classical 热力学 states that while our basic physical theory is, in fact, time-reversal symmetric, thermodynamics is not. In particular, the 热力学第二定律 states that the net of a closed system never decreases, and this explains why we often see glass breaking, but not coming back together.

But in 统计力学 things become more complicated. On one hand, statistical mechanics is far superior to classical thermodynamics, in that thermodynamic behavior, such as glass breaking, can be explained by the fundamental laws of physics paired with a 统计学 postulate. But statistical mechanics, unlike classical thermodynamics, is time-reversal symmetric. The second law of thermodynamics, as it arises in statistical mechanics, merely states that it is overwhelmingly likely that net entropy will increase, but it is not an absolute law.

Current thermodynamic solutions to the problem of the direction of time aim to find some further fact, or feature of the laws of nature to account for this discrepancy.

Laws solution

A third type of solution to the problem of the direction of time, although much less represented, argues that the laws are not time-reversal symmetric. For example, certain processes in quantum mechanics中文quantum mechanics, relating to the 弱相互作用, are not time-reversible, keeping in mind that when dealing with quantum mechanics time-reversibility comprises a more complex definition. But this type of solution is insufficient because 1) the time-asymmetric phenomena in quantum mechanics are too few to account for the uniformity of macroscopic time-asymmetry and 2) it relies on the assumption that quantum mechanics is the final or correct description of physical processes.[來源請求]

One recent proponent of the laws solution is Tim Maudlin英语Tim Maudlin who argues that the fundamental laws of physics are laws of temporal evolution (see Maudlin [2007]). However, elsewhere Maudlin argues: "[the] passage of time is an intrinsic asymmetry in the temporal structure of the world... It is the asymmetry that grounds the distinction between sequences that runs from past to future and sequences which run from future to past" [ibid, 2010 edition, p. 108]. Thus it is arguably difficult to assess whether Maudlin is suggesting that the direction of time is a consequence of the laws or is itself primitive.

Flow of time

The problem of the flow of time, as it has been treated in analytic philosophy, owes its beginning to a paper written by J. M. E. McTaggart英语J. M. E. McTaggart. In this paper McTaggart proposes two "temporal series". The first series, which means to account for our intuitions about temporal becoming, or the moving Now, is called the A系列與B系列. The A-series orders events according to their being in the past, present or future, simpliciter and in comparison to each other. The A系列與B系列 eliminates all reference to the present, and the associated temporal modalities of past and future, and orders all events by the temporal relations earlier than and later than.

McTaggart, in his paper "時間的不實在性", argues that time is unreal since a) the A-series is inconsistent and b) the B-series alone cannot account for the nature of time as the A-series describes an essential feature of it.

Building from this framework, two camps of solution have been offered. The first, the A-theorist solution, takes becoming as the central feature of time, and tries to construct the B-series from the A-series by offering an account of how B-facts come to be out of A-facts. The second camp, the B-theorist solution, takes as decisive McTaggart's arguments against the A-series and tries to construct the A-series out of the B-series, for example, by temporal indexicals.

Dualities

量子场论 models have shown that it is possible for theories in two different space-time backgrounds, like AdS/CFT or T對偶, to be equivalent.

Presentism and eternalism

According to Presentism英语Presentism (philosophy of time), time is an ordering of various 現實. At a certain time some things exist and others do not. This is the only reality we can deal with and we cannot for example say that 荷马 exists because at the present time he does not. An Eternalist英语Eternalism (philosophy of time), on the other hand, holds that time is a dimension of reality on a par with the three spatial dimensions, and hence that all things—past, present, and future—can be said to be just as real as things in the present. According to this theory, then, Homer really does exist, though we must still use special language when talking about somebody who exists at a distant time—just as we would use special language when talking about something far away (the very words near, far, above, below, and such are directly comparable to phrases such as in the past, a minute ago, and so on).

Endurantism and perdurantism

The positions on the persistence of objects are somewhat similar. An 持續論 holds that for an object to persist through time is for it to exist completely at different times (each instance of existence we can regard as somehow separate from previous and future instances, though still numerically identical with them). A 接續論 on the other hand holds that for a thing to exist through time is for it to exist as a continuous reality, and that when we consider the thing as a whole we must consider an aggregate of all its "temporal part英语temporal parts" or instances of existing. Endurantism is seen as the conventional view and flows out of our pre-philosophical ideas (when I talk to somebody I think I am talking to that person as a complete object, and not just a part of a cross-temporal being), but perdurantists have attacked this position. (An example of a perdurantist is David Lewis英语David Lewis (philosopher).) One argument perdurantists use to state the superiority of their view is that perdurantism is able to take account of change in objects.

The relations between these two questions mean that on the whole Presentists英语Presentism (philosophy of time) are also endurantists and Eternalists英语Eternalism (philosophy of time) are also perdurantists (and vice versa), but this is not a necessary connection and it is possible to claim, for instance, that time's passage indicates a series of ordered realities, but that objects within these realities somehow exist outside of the reality as a whole, even though the realities as wholes are not related. However, such positions are rarely adopted.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Thompson, Richard L. The Cosmology of the Bhagavata Purana: Mysteries of the Sacred Universe. Motilal Banarsidass. 2007: 225. ISBN 978-81-208-1919-1.  Extract of page 225
  2. ^ Dagobert Runes, Dictionary of Philosophy, p. 318
  3. ^ Atuq Eusebio Manga Qespi, Instituto de lingüística y Cultura Amerindia de la Universidad de Valencia. Pacha: un concepto andino de espacio y tiempo. Revísta española de Antropología Americana, 24, pp. 155–189. Edit. Complutense, Madrid. 1994
  4. ^ Stephen Hart, Peruvian Cultural Studies:Work in Progress
  5. ^ Paul Richard Steele, Catherine J. Allen, Handbook of Inca mythology, p. 86, (ISBN 1-57607-354-8)
  6. ^ St. Augustine, Confessions, Book 11. http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/augconf/aug11.htm (Accessed 19/5/14).
  7. ^ Craig, William Lane. Whitrow and Popper on the Impossibility of an Infinite Past. The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science. June 1979, 30 (2): 165–170 [165–6]. doi:10.1093/bjps/30.2.165. 
  8. ^ Nader El-Bizri英语Nader El-Bizri, 'In Defence of the Sovereignty of Philosophy: al-Baghdadi's Critique of Ibn al-Haytham's Geometrisation of Place', Arabic Sciences and Philosophy 17 (2007), 57–80
  9. ^ Smith, A. Mark. The Alhacenian Account Of Spatial Perception And Its Epistemological Implications. Arabic Sciences and Philosophy (Cambridge University Press). 2005, 15 (2): 219–40. doi:10.1017/S0957423905000184. 
  10. ^ Borchert, D.M. (2006) Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2nd Ed. Vol. 9. MI: Cengage Learning. P. 468.

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  • Bas van Fraassen英语Bas van Fraassen, 1970. An Introduction to the Philosophy of Space and Time. Random House.
  • Gal-Or, Benjamin "Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy". Springer-Verlag, New York, 1981, 1983, 1987 ISBN 0-387-90581-2
  • Ahmad, Manzoor. XV: The Notion of Existence. Naeem Ahmad; George F McClean (编). Philosophy in Pakistan. Department of Philosophy, University of Punjab, Lahore, Punjab Province of Pakistan: Punjab University press. May 28, 1998: 245–250 [4 July 2012]. ISBN 1-56518-108-5. 

External links

test

Perhaps the first written expression of the concept is the advice given by 西杜里 to 吉爾伽美什, telling him to forgo his mourning and embrace life although some scholars see it as simply urging Gilgamesh to abandon his mourning, "reversing the liminal rituals of mourning and returning to the normal and normative behaviors of Mesopotamian society."

TEST

一战时间轴

Theatres
Western Eastern Italian
Caucasian Middle Eastern Balkan
African Naval Air
Politics Asian and Pacific Gallipoli

1914

Dates Events
June 28 Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, who was killed in Sarajevo along with his wife Duchess Sophie by Bosnian Serb Gavrilo Princip.[1] Details
July 5 Austria-Hungary seeks German support for a war against Serbia in case of Russian militarism. Germany gives assurances of support.[2]
July 23 Beginning of the "Black Week". Austria-Hungary sends an ultimatum to Serbia. The Serbian response is seen as satisfactory everywhere but in Vienna.[3] Details
July 28 Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia.[4] Russia mobilizes.[5] Details
The Netherlands declare neutrality.
July 31 Germany warns Russia to stop mobilizing. Russia says mobilization is against Austria-Hungary.[6]
August 1 Germany declares war on Russia.[7][8]
Italy declares its neutrality.
Denmark declares its neutrality.[9]
Germany and the Ottoman Empire sign a secret alliance treaty.[10] Details
August 2 Germany invades Luxembourg. Details
Skirmish at Joncherey, first military action on the Western Front
August 2–26 Germany besieges and captures fortified Longwy "the iron gate to Paris" near the Luxembourg border, opening France to mass German invasion
August 3 Germany declares war on France.[11] Belgium denies permission for German forces to pass through to the French border.[12][13]
Switzerland declares its neutrality.[14]
August 4 Germany invades Belgium[15] to outflank the French army. Details
Britain protests the violation of Belgian neutrality, guaranteed by a treaty;
German Chancellor replies that the treaty is just a chiffon de papier (a scrap of paper).
The United Kingdom declares war on Germany.[16]
Details
The United States declares neutrality.
August 4–16 The Germans besiege and then capture the fortresses of Liège, Belgium. Details
August 5 First shot fired by Allied troops – German Steamer SS Pfalz surrenders after being fired on by Fort Nepean, south of Melbourne, Australia[17]
Montenegro declares war on Austria-Hungary.[18]
The Ottoman Empire closes the Dardanelles.
August 6 Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia.[19]
Serbia declares war on Germany.[19]
August 7 The British Expeditionary Force arrives in France.[20] Details
August 7 – September 13 Battle of the Frontiers. The Germans obtain a victory against the British Expeditionary Force and France's Fifth Army.
August 7–10 Battle of Mulhouse, a phase of the Battle of the Frontiers.
August 8 Montenegro declares war on Germany.[19][21]
August 9 The Togoland Campaign begins.
August 11 France declares war on Austria-Hungary.
August 12 The United Kingdom declares war on Austria-Hungary.[19][22]
Battle of Haelen, a phase of the Battle of the Frontiers.
August 14–25 Battle of Lorraine, a phase of the Battle of the Frontiers.
August 16–20 The Serbs defeat the Austro-Hungarians at the Battle of Cer.[23] Details
August 17 The Russian army enters East Prussia. Battle of Stalluponen. Details
August 20 The Germans attack the Russians in East Prussia, the Battle of Gumbinnen. The attack is a failure in addition to being a deviation from the Schlieffen Plan.[24] Details
The Germans occupy Brussels.
Battle of Morhange, a phase of the Battle of Lorraine.
Battle of Sarrebourg, a phase of the Battle of Lorraine.
August 21 Battle of Charleroi, a phase of the Battle of the Frontiers.
August 21–23 Battle of the Ardennes, a phase of the Battle of the Frontiers.
August 23 Japan declares war on Germany.[19] Details
Battle of Mons, a phase of the Battle of the Frontiers.
August 23–30 Battle of Tannenberg: the Russian army undergoes a heavy defeat by the Germans.[25] Details
August 23 – September 11 Battle of Lemberg. The Russians capture Lviv. Details
August 23–25 Battle of Kraśnik, a phase of the Battle of Lemberg. The Austro-Hungarian First Army defeats the Russian Fourth Army.[26] Details
August 24 Action of Elouges.
Battle of the Mortagne, a phase of the Battle of Lorraine.
August 24 – September 7 The Germans besiege and capture the Maubeuge Fortress. Details
August 24 – September 28 The Allied Great Retreat to the River Marne.
August 25 Japan declares war on Austria-Hungary.[19]
August 26 British and French forces conquer Togoland, a German protectorate in West Africa.[27] Details
Battle of Le Grand Fayt.
August 26–27 Battle of Le Cateau. Allied retreat. Details
August 26–30 Battle of Gnila Lipa, a phase of the Battle of Lemberg.
August 26 – September 2 Battle of Komarow, part of the Battle of Lemberg. Details
August 27 Battle of Étreux. Details
August 27 – November 7 Battle of Tsingtao: British and Japanese forces capture the German-controlled port of Tsingtao in China. Details
August 28 The Royal Navy wins the First Battle of Heligoland Bight, North Sea. Details
Austria-Hungary declares war on Belgium.[19][28]
August 29–30 Battle of Saint Quentin, also known as Battle of Guise. Orderly Allied retreat. Details
August 30 New Zealand occupies German Samoa (later Western Samoa). Details
September 1 Action at Nery Details
September 2–11 Austro-Hungarian defeat at the Battle of Rava Russka, a phase of the Battle of Lemberg. Details
September 4–13 Battle of Grand Couronne, a phase of the Battle of the Frontiers.
September 5–12 First Battle of the Marne. The German advance on Paris is halted, marking the failure of the Schlieffen Plan.[29] Details
Battle of the Ourcq, a phase of the First Battle of the Marne.
Battle of the Two Morins.
September 6–12 Battle of the Marshes of Saint-Gond, a phase of the First Battle of the Marne.
Battle of Vitry, a phase of the First Battle of the Marne.
Battle of Revigny, a phase of the First Battle of the Marne.
September 6 – October 4 Battle of Drina.
September 7–14 First Battle of the Masurian Lakes: The Russian Army of the Neman withdraws from East Prussia with heavy casualties. Details
September 9 Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg lays out Germany's war aims. Details
September 11 Australian forces occupy German New Guinea.[30] Details
September 13 Troops from South Africa begin invading German South-West Africa. Details
September 13–28 The First Battle of the Aisne ends in a substantial draw. The Race to the Sea begins. Details
September 14 Erich von Falkenhayn replaces Helmuth von Moltke the Younger as German Chief of Staff. Details
September 19 – October 11 Battle of Flirey
September 20 Battle of Zanzibar, German naval victory.
September 22 Bombardment of Papeete
German Light Cruiser Emden attacks Madras Details
September 22–26 First Battle of Picardy.
September 24 The Siege of Przemyśl begins Details
September 25–29 First Battle of Albert Details
September 28 – October 10 The Germans besiege and capture Antwerp, Belgium. Details
September 29 – October 31 Battle of the Vistula River, also known as Battle of Warsaw. Details
October–July 11, 1915 Battle of Rufiji Delta, German cruiser Königsberg destroyed.
October 1–4 First Battle of Arras. Details
October 9 – November 1 Central powers control Belgrade. Details
October 10 – November 2 Battle of La Bassee.
October 12 – November 2 First Battle of Messines. Details
October 13 – November 2 Battle of Armentieres.
October 16–31 Battle of the Yser. French and Belgian forces secure the coastline of Belgium.[31] Details
October 19 – November 22 The First Battle of Ypres ends the Race to the Sea. The Germans are prevented from reaching Calais and Dunkirk. Details
October 29 The Ottoman Empire launches a surprise attack on the Russian Black Sea coast Details
November 1 Russia declares war on the Ottoman Empire.
Battle of Coronel. Von Spee's German cruiser squadron defeats a Royal Navy squadron under Christopher Cradock.[32] Details
November 2 The United Kingdom begins the naval blockade of Germany. Details
November 2–16 Bergmann Offensive, first military engagement in the Caucuses of the First World War.
November 3 Montenegro declares war on the Ottoman Empire.
Battle of Kilimanjaro.
November 3–5 Von Lettow-Vorbeck's German colonial forces defeat the British at the Battle of Tanga, German East Africa. Details
November 5 France and the United Kingdom[33] declare war on the Ottoman Empire.[19]
November 6 Fao Landing, British and Indians besiege the fortress at Fao.
November 9 Battle of Cocos, northeast Indian Ocean. The Australian cruiser Sydney destroys the German cruiser Emden.[34] Details
November 11 Sultan Mehmed V declares Jihad on the Allies.[35][36] Details
November 11–21 Battle of Basra. Details
November 11 – December 6 Battle of Łódź (also known as Silesian Offensive). Details
November 16 – December 15 Battle of Kolubara, Austro-Hungarians leave Serbia.
December 1–13 Battle of Limanowa.
December 3–9 Battle of Qurna.
December 8 Battle of the Falklands. Von Spee's German cruiser squadron is defeated by the Royal Navy.[37] Details
December 10 Hill 60 captured by the Germans. Details
December 16 The German fleet shells Scarborough and Hartlepool, England.[38] Details
December 18–22 Battle of Givenchy.
December 17 – January 13, 1915 First Battle of Artois.
December 20 Fighting begins at Perthes.
December 20 – 17 March 1915 First Battle of Champagne. Details
December 22 Fighting begins at Noyon. Details
December 22 – January 2, 1915 The Russians win the Battle of Sarikamish, Caucasia.[39] Details
December 24–25 In some sectors of the Western Front, an unofficial Christmas truce is observed between German and British forces.[40] Details
December 25 – January 18, 1915 Battle of Ardahan.

1915

Dates Events
January 2 The Russian offensive in the Carpathians begins. It will continue until April 12.
January 18–19 Battle of Jassin.
January 19 First Zeppelin raid on Great Britain. Details
January 19 – December 22 Battle of Hartmannswillerkopf, series of battles fought to control the peak.
January 24 Battle of Dogger Bank between squadrons of the British Grand Fleet and the German Hochseeflotte. Details
January 24–26 Chilembwe uprising led by John Chilembwe in Nyasaland.
January 28 – February 3 The Ottomans fail to capture the Suez Canal. Details
January 31 Battle of Bolimov. First German use of chemical weapons.[41] Details
February 4 Germany begins unrestricted submarine warfare against merchant vessels. Details
February 7–22 Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes. The Russian X Army is defeated. Details
February 19 British and French naval attack on the Dardanelles. The Gallipoli Campaign begins.[42] Details
March 10 – March 13 Battle of Neuve Chapelle. After an initial success, a British offensive is halted. Details
March 22 The Siege of Przemyśl ends. The Russians capture the fortress. Details
April 5 – May 5 First Battle of Woevre.
April 12–14 Battle of Shaiba.
April 19 – May 17 The Ottomans besiege the Armenian city of Van. Details
April 22 – May 25 The Second Battle of Ypres, which ends in a stalemate. Germany first uses the poison gas. Details
April 22–23 Battle of Gravenstafel, First stage of the Second Battle of Ypres.
April 24 – May 5 Battle of St Julien, part of the Second Battle of Ypres.
April 25 Allied forces land on Gallipoli, landing at Anzac Cove and Cape Helles.[43] Details
April 26 Treaty of London between the Entente and Italy.[44] Details
April 28 First Battle of Krithia. The Allied advance is repelled.[45] Details
May 1 The Gorlice-Tarnów begins: the German troops under General Mackensen break through the Russian lines in Galicia. Details
Battle of Eski Hissarlik.
May 3 Troops withdraw from Anzac Cove. Details
May 6–8 Second Battle of Krithia. The Allied attempts at advancing are thwarted again.[46] Details
May 7 The British liner Lusitania is sunk by a German U-boat.[47] Details
May 8–13 Battle of Frezenberg Ridge, Part of the Second Battle of Ypres.
May 9 – June 18 Second Battle of Artois.
May 9 Battle of Aubers Ridge, a phase of the Second Battle of Artois.
May 10 Troops from Hungary rout the Russians at Jarosław. Lviv is again in Austrian hands.
May 11 Armistice called at Gallipoli to bury the dead. Details
May 12 Windhoek, capital of German South-West Africa, is occupied by South African troops.[48] Details
May 15–25 Battle of Festubert.
May 16 – June 23 Battle of Konary.
May 23 Italy declares war on Austria-Hungary.[19] Details
May 24–25 Battle of Bellewaarde, final phase of the Second Battle of Ypres.
June–September The Russian Great Retreat from Poland and Galicia.
June 4 Third Battle of Krithia. Yet another Allied failure.[46] Details
The Russians leave Przemyśl. Details
June 21–23 Battle of Bukoba.
June 22 Mackensen breaks again through the Russian lines in the Lviv area. Details
June 23 – July 7 First Battle of the Isonzo. Details
June 27 The Austro-Hungarians re-enter Lviv. Details
June 28 – July 5 The British win the Battle of Gully Ravine. Details
July Battle of Kara Killisse. Details
July 1 First aerial victory by a synchronized gun-armed fighter aircraft Details
July 9 The German forces in South-West Africa surrender. Details
July 10–26 Battle of Manzikert. Details
July 18 – August 3 Second Battle of the Isonzo. Details
July 25 Italians capture Cappuccio Wood. Details
July 25 First Victoria Cross awarded to a British combat pilot Details
August 5 The Germans occupy Warsaw. Details
August 6–10 Battle of Lone Pine, part of the August Offensive.
August 6–13 Battle of Krithia Vineyard, part of the August Offensive.
August 6–15 Allies land at Suvla Bay, a phase of the August Offensive. Details.
August 6–21 Battle of Sari Bair, part of the August Offensive. Last and unsuccessful attempt by the British to seize the Gallipoli peninsula.[49] Details
August 7 Battle of the Nek, a phase of the August Offensive.
August 7–19 Battle of Chunuk Bair, a phase of the August Offensive.
August 21 Scimitar Hill, a phase of the August Offensive.
August 21–29 Battle of Hill 60, part of the August Offensive. Details
August 26 – September 19 Sventiany Offensive, a phase of the Gorlice-Tarnow Offensive.
September 1 Germany suspends unrestricted submarine warfare. Details
September 5–8 The Zimmerwald Conference of anti-militarist European socialist parties is held in Zimmerwald, Switzerland. Details
September 8 Nicholas II removes Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolayevich as Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army, personally taking that position. Details
September 15 – November 4 Third Battle of Artois.
September 19 The Germans occupy Vilnius. The Gorlice-Tarnów Offensive ends. Details
September 25–28 Battle of Loos, a major British offensive, fails. Details
September 25 – October 15 Battle of the Hohenzollern Redoubt, a phase of the Battle of Loos.
September 25 – November 6 Second Battle of Champagne.
September 28 Battle of Es Sinn.
October 7 – December 4 Serbia is invaded by Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Bulgaria. Details
October 14 Bulgaria declares war on Serbia[19] Details
October 14 – November 9 Morava Offensive, a phase of the Central Powers Invasion of Serbia, Bulgarians break through Serbian lines.
October 14 – November 15 Ovche Pole Offensive, a phase of the Central Powers invasion of Serbia, Bulgarians break through Serbian lines.
October 15 The United Kingdom declares war on Bulgaria.[19][50]
October 16 France declares war on Bulgaria.[19]
October 17 – November 21 Battle of Krivolak, start of the set up of the Salonika Front.
October 18 – November 4 Third Battle of the Isonzo Details
October 19 Italy and Russia declare war on Bulgaria.[19]
October 27 Andrew Fisher resigns as Prime Minister of Australia; he is replaced by Billy Hughes.
A French army lands in Salonika and, with the help of British and Italian troops, sets up a Balkan Front.
October 29 René Viviani resigns as Prime Minister of France; he is replaced by Aristide Briand.
November 10 – December 2 Fourth Battle of the Isonzo
November 10 – December 4 Kosovo Offensive, a phase of the Central Powers invasion of Serbia, Serbians pushed into Albania. Details
November 22–25 Battle of Ctesiphon, in present-day Iraq.[51] Details
November 27 The Serbian army collapses. It will retreat to the Adriatic Sea and be evacuated by the Italian and French Navies. Details
December – July, 1916 Battle of Lake Tanganyika.
December 6–12 Battle of Kosturino
December 7 The First Siege of Kut, Mesopotamia, by the Ottomans begins.[52] Details
December 19 Douglas Haig replaces John French as commander of the British Expeditionary Force. Details

1916

Dates Events
January 5–17 Austro-Hungarian offensive against Montenegro, which capitulates. Details
January 6–7 Battle of Mojkovac
January 6–8 Battle of Sheikh Sa'ad, a phase of the First Siege of Kut.
January 9 The Gallipoli Campaign ends in an Allied defeat and an Ottoman victory.[53] Details
January 10 – February 16 Battle of Erzurum.
January 11 Corfu occupied by the Allies. Details
January 13 Battle of Wadi, a phase of the First Siege of Kut. Details
January 21 Battle of Hanna, a phase of the First Siege of Kut.
January 24 Reinhard Scheer is appointed commander of Germany's Hochseeflotte.[54] Details
January 27 Conscription introduced in the United Kingdom by the Military Service Act 1916.[55] Details
February 5 – April 15 Trebizond Campaign.
February 12 Battle of Salaita Hill.
February 21 The Battle of Verdun begins.[56]
February 26 Battle of Agagia, Senussi rebellion suppressed by the British.
February 28 German Kamerun (Cameroon) surrenders. Details
March 1 Germany resumes unrestricted submarine warfare. Details
March 1–15 Fifth Battle of the Isonzo.
March 2 – August 4 Battle of Bitlis.
March 8 Battle of Dujaila: a British attempt to relieve Kut failed. Details
March 9 Germany declares war on Portugal.[19] Portugal officially enters the war. Details
March 11–12 Battle of Latema Nek.
March 14 The Manifesto of the Sixteen, declaring Kropotkinist-anarchist support of the Allied war effort, is published. Details
March 18 Battle of Kahe.
March 18 – April Lake Naroch Offensive.
April 24–29 Easter Rising by Irish rebels for independence from the United Kingdom. Details
April 24–30 The Kienthal Conference, the second meeting of the anti-war socialist Zimmerwald Movement, is held in Kienthal, Switzerland. Details
April 27–29 Gas attacks at Hulluch.
April 29 The British forces under siege at Kut surrender to the Ottomans, first siege of Kut ends. Details
May 7–10 Battle of Kondoa Irangi.
May 10 Germany suspends unrestricted submarine warfare. Details
May 15 – June 10 Austro-Hungarian Strafexpedition in Trentino. Details
May 16 Signing of the Sykes-Picot Agreement between Britain and France defining their proposed spheres in the Middle East. Details
May 31 – June 1 Battle of Jutland between Britain's Grand Fleet and Germany's Hochseeflotte. Details
June 2–14 Battle of Mont Sorrel.
June 4 The Brusilov Offensive begins.
June 5 The Arab Revolt in Hejaz begins. Details
The HMS Hampshire is sunk off the Orkney Islands; Lord Kitchener dies. Details
June 10 Italy: Paolo Boselli succeeds Antonio Salandra as Prime Minister. Details
The Siege of Medina begins.
June 10 – July 4 Battle of Mecca, Arabs capture the city. Details
June 30 Battle of the Boar's Head, diversion from the Battle of the Somme which began the next day.
July Battle of Taif. Details
July 1 The Battle of the Somme begins. Details
July 1–3 The Social Democratic Party wins a majority in the parliament of the Russian-ruled Grand Duchy of Finland. Details
July 1–13 Second Battle of Albert (Opening phase of the Battle of the Somme). Details
July 1–2 British capture Fricourt during the Second Battle of Albert. Details
July 2–25 Battle of Erzincan.
July 3–7 British capture La Boisselle during the Second Battle of Albert. Details
July 3–12 British capture Mametz Wood during the Second Battle of Albert. Details
July 3–17 British capture Ovillers during the Second Battle of Albert and Battle of Bazentin Ridge. Details
July 4–6 Battle of Kostiuchnowka.
July 7–11 British capture Contalmaison during the Second Battle of Albert. Details
July 8–14 British capture Trônes Wood during the Second Battle of Albert. Details
July 14–17 Battle of Bazentin Ridge (Initial phase of the Battle of the Somme) Details
July 14 – September 15 Battles for Longueval and Delville Wood (Initial phase of the Battle of the Somme) Details
July 19–20 Battle of Fromelles (Initial phase of the Battle of the Somme).
July 23 – August 7 Battle of Pozières (Initial phase of the Battle of the Somme) Details
July 24 – August 8 Battle of Kowel.
August 3–5 Battle of Romani. Ottoman attack on the British in the Sinai peninsula fails. Details
August 6–17 Sixth Battle of the Isonzo. The Italians capture Gorizia (August 9). Details
August 6 Battle of Doberdo, part of the Sixth Battle of Isonzo.
August 9–18 First battle of Doiran. Details
August 24 Battle of Mlali.
August 27 Romania enters the war on the Entente's side. Her army is defeated in a few weeks.
August 27 – December Conquest of Romania by Central Powers. Details
August 27 – November 26 Battle of Transylvania, a phase of the conquest of Romania.
August 28 Italy declares war on Germany.[19][44]
August 29 Paul von Hindenburg replaces Erich von Falkenhayn as German Chief of Staff. Details
September 2–6 Battle of Turtucaia, a phase of the conquest of Romania.
September 3–6 Battle of Guillemont (intermediate phase of the Battle of the Somme) Details
September 5–7 Battle of Dobrich, a phase of the conquest of Romania.
September 6 The Central Powers create a unified command.
September 7–11 Battle of Kisaki.
September 9 Battle of Ginchy (intermediate phase of the Battle of the Somme) Details
September 12 – December 11 Monastir Offensive, set up of the Salonika Front.
September 12–14 Battle of Malka Nidzhe, a phase of the Monastir Offensive.
September 12–30 Battle of Kaymakchalan, a phase of the Monastir Offensive.
September 14–17 Seventh Battle of the Isonzo
September 15–22 Battle of Flers-Courcelette; the British use armored tanks for the first time in history. Details
September 17–19 First Battle of Cobadin, a phase of the conquest of Romania.
September 20 The Brusilov Offensive ends with a substantial Russian success. Details
September 25–28 Battle of Morval (part of the final stages of the Battle of the Somme) Details
September 26–28 Battle of Thiepval Ridge (part of the final stages of the Battle of the Somme) Details
September 29 – October 5 Flamanda Offensive, a phase of the conquest of Romania.
October–November First Battle of the Cerna Bend, a phase of the Monastir Offensive. Details
October 1 – November 5 Battle of Le Transloy (last stage of the Battle of the Somme) Details
October 1 – November 11 Battle of Ancre Heights (last stage of the Battle of the Somme).
October 9–12 Eighth Battle of the Isonzo.
October 19–25 Second Battle of Cobadin, a phase of the conquest of Romania.
October 24 The French recapture Fort Douaumont near Verdun. Details
November 1–4 Ninth Battle of the Isonzo.
November 13–18 Battle of the Ancre (closing phase of the Battle of the Somme) Details
November 18 The Battle of the Somme ends with enormous casualties and an Anglo-French advantage. Details
November 21 HMHS Britannic sinks after hitting a German mine Details
Francis Joseph I, Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, dies and is succeeded by Charles I. Details
November 25 David Beatty replaces John Jellicoe as commander of the Grand Fleet. Jellicoe becomes First Lord of the Sea. Details
November 25 – December 3 Battle of Bucharest, a phase of the conquest of Romania.
November 28 Prunaru Charge, a phase of the Battle of Bucharest, Romanian cavalry desperately charge into enemy lines.
December 1 Battle of the Arges, a phase of the Battle of Bucharest.
December 1 – January 18, 1917 Allies capture Yanbu. Details
December 5–7 United Kingdom: Prime Minister H. H. Asquith resigns and is succeeded by David Lloyd George. Details
December 6 The Germans occupy Bucharest. The capital of Romania moved to Iaşi. Details
December 13 Robert Nivelle replaces Joseph Joffre as Commander-in-Chief of the French Army. Details
December 18 Battle of Verdun ends with enormous casualties on both sides.
December 23 Battle of Magdhaba in the Sinai peninsula.[57] Details
December 23–29 Christmas Battles.
December 27 Togoland is divided into British and French administrative zones. Details
December 29 Grigori Rasputin, Russia's éminence grise, is assassinated. Details

1917

Dates Events
January 3–4 Battle of Behobeho.
January 9 Battle of Rafa. The British drive the Ottomans out of Sinai. Details
January 11 – March 13 British raid the Ancre. Details
January 16 The German Foreign Secretary Arthur Zimmermann sends a telegram to his ambassador in Mexico, instructing him to propose to the Mexican government an alliance against the United States. Details
February 1 Germany resumes unrestricted submarine warfare. Details
February 23 Second Battle of Kut. The British recapture the city. Details
February 23 – April 5 The Germans withdraw to the Hindenburg Line. Details
March 1 Arz von Straussenberg replaces Conrad von Hötzendorf as Austro-Hungarian Chief of Staff. Details
March 8–11 The British capture Baghdad. Details
March 13 – April 23 Samarrah Offensive, British capture much of Mesopotamia.
March 15 Russia: Czar Nicholas II abdicates. A provisional government is appointed. Details
March 17 Aristide Briand resigns as Prime Minister of France; he is replaced by Alexandre Ribot.
March 26 First Battle of Gaza. The British attempt to capture the city fails.[58] Details
April–October Stalemate in Southern Palestine.
April 2–3 Australians attack Noreuil. Details.
April 6 The United States declares war on Germany.[59] Details
April 9 – May 17 Second Battle of Arras. The British attack a heavily fortified German line without obtaining any strategic breakthrough.[60] Details
April 9–12 The Canadians obtain a significant victory in the Battle of Vimy Ridge, part of the first phase of the Second Battle of Arras.[61] Details
April 9–14 First Battle of the Scarpe, part of the first phase of the Second Battle of Arras. Details
April 10–11 First Battle of Bullecourt,part of the first phase of the Second Battle of Arras. Details
April 15 Battle of Lagnicourt, part of the Second phase of the Second Battle of Arras. Details
April 16 – May 9 The Second Battle of the Aisne (also known as Nivelle Offensive) ends in disaster for both the French army and its commander Robert Nivelle.[62] Details
April 17–20 Battle of the Hills (also known as Third battle of Champagne), a diversion to the Second Battle of the Aisne.
April 19 Second Battle of Gaza. The Ottoman lines resist a British attack. Details
April 22 – May 8 Second Battle of Doiran. Details
April 23–24 Second Battle of Scarpe, part of the second phase of the Second Battle of Arras. Details
April 28–29 Battle of Arleux, part of the Second phase of the Second Battle of Arras. Details
April 29 – May 20 Series of mutinies in the French army.[63] Details
May 3–4 Third battle of the Scarpe, part of the second phase of the Second Battle of Arras. Details
May 3–17 Second Battle of Bullecourt, part of the second phase of the Second Battle of Arras. Details
May 5 Australian Prime Minister Billy Hughes wins an enlarged majority in federal elections with the pro-conscription Nationalist Party. Details
May 5–15 Allied Spring offensive on the Salonika Front.
May 5–9 Second Battle of the Cerna Bend, a phase of the Allied Spring Offensive. Details
May 12 – June 6 Tenth Battle of the Isonzo. Details
May 15 Philippe Pétain replaces Robert Nivelle as Commander-in-Chief of the French Army.[64] Details
May 23 Battle of Mount Hermada in the Karst.
June–October Operation Hush, Abortive British plan to capture coast of Belgium.
June 7–14 Second Battle of Messines, the British blow 19 deep mines and recapture Messines Ridge. Details
June 10–29 Battle of Mount Ortigara. Details
June 12 Greece: King Constantine I abdicates.[65] Details
June 13 First successful heavy bomber raid on London done by the Gotha G.IV.
July 21 Alexander Kerensky replaces Georgy Lvov as Minister-President of the Russian Provisional Government.
June 25 First American troops land in France. Details
June 30 Greece declares war on the Central powers. Details
July 1–19 The Kerensky Offensive fails. It is the last Russian initiative in the war.[66] Details
July 1–2 Battle of Zborov, a phase of the Kerensky Offensive. Details
July 6 Arab rebels led by Lawrence of Arabia seize the Jordanian port of Aqaba.[67] Details
July 20 Corfu Declaration about the future Kingdom of Yugoslavia.[68] Details
July 11 The Open Letter to Albert I is published by Flemish Movement sympathisers within the Belgian Army on the Yser Front, complaining about official discrimination against Dutch language Details
July 22 – August 1 Battle of Marasti
July 29 Battle of Kiawe Bridge.
July 31 The Third Battle of Ypres (also known as Battle of Passchendaele) begins. Details
July 31 – August 2 Battle of Pilckem Ridge (Opening phase of the Third Battle of Ypres).
August 2–10 Battle of Rumbo.
August 6–20 Battle of Mărăşeşti. Details
August 8–20 Second Battle of Oituz.
August 15–25 Battle of Hill 70 (Continuation of British operations near Lens).
August 16–18 Second Battle of Langemarck (Initial phase of the Third Battle of Ypres). Details
August 18–28 Eleventh Battle of the Isonzo. Details
August 20–26 Second Offensive Battle of Verdun.
September – October Operation Albion. German capture of Oesel, Dago and Moon Islands.
September 1–3 Battle of Jugla.
September 5–12 The Third Zimmerwald Conference of the anti-war socialist Zimmerwald Movement, is held in Stockholm. Details
September 8 Russia: General Kornilov's coup attempt fails. Details
September 12 Alexandre Ribot resigns as Prime Minister of France; he is replaced by Paul Painlevé.
September 20–26 Battle of the Menin Road Ridge (Second phase of the Third Battle of Ypres).
September 26–27 Battle of Polygon Wood (Second phase of the Third Battle of Ypres).
September 28–29 Battle of Ramadi, Mesopotamia. Details
October 4 Battle of Broodseinde (Second phase of the Third Battle of Ypres).
October 9 Battle of Poelcappelle (Last phase of the Third Battle of Ypres).
October 12 First Battle of Passchendaele (Last phase of the Third Battle of Ypres).
October 15–18 Battle of Mahiwa.
October 23 Battle of Wadi Musa.
October 23 – November 10 Battle of La Malmaison, much-postponed French attack on the Chemin des Dames. Details
October 24 – November 4 Battle of Caporetto. The Austro-Hungarians and Germans break through the Italian lines. The Italian army is defeated and falls back on the Piave River. Details
October 26 – November 10 Second Battle of Passchendaele (Last phase of the Third Battle of Ypres).
October 27 Battle of Buqqar Ridge.
October 30 Italy: Vittorio Emanuele Orlando succeeds Paolo Boselli as Prime Minister. Details
October 31 – November 7 Third Battle of Gaza. The British break through the Ottoman lines. Details
October 31 Battle of Beersheba (opening phase of the Third Battle of Gaza). Details
November 1–6 Battle of Tel el Khuweilfe.
November 2 Balfour Declaration: the British government supports plans for a Jewish "national home" in Palestine. Details
November 5 The Allies agree to establish a Supreme War Council at Versailles.
November 7 The October Revolution begins in Russia. The Bolsheviks seize power. Details
Charge at Sheria.
November 8 Armando Diaz replaces Luigi Cadorna as Commander-in-Chief of the Italian Army. Details
Charge at Huj.
November 9 – December 28 First Battle of the Piave: the Austro-Hungarians and Germans try unsuccessfully to cross the river. Details
November 10 The Third Battle of Ypres (also known as Battle of Passchendaele) ends. Details
November 11 – December 23 First Battle of Monte Grappa, Austro-Hungarian offensive halted.
November 13 France: Paul Painlevé is replaced by Georges Clemenceau as Prime Minister. Details
Battle of Mughar Ridge.
November 14 Battle of Ayun Kara.
November 17 Second Battle of Heligoland Bight, North Sea. Details
November 17 – December 30 Battle of Jerusalem. The British enter the city (December 11). Details
November 18–24 Battle of Nebi Samwil, a phase of the Battle of Jerusalem.
November 20 – December 3 First Battle of Cambrai. A British attack and the biggest German attack against the British since 1915succeed and the battle is a stalemate.[69] Details
November 25 Battle of Ngomano, the Germans invade Portuguese East Africa to gain supplies.
December 1 Battle of El Burj, a phase of the Battle of Jerusalem.
December 7 The United States declares war on Austria-Hungary.[19]
December 16 Russia signs a preliminary armistice with Germany.
December 17 Canadian Prime Minister Robert Borden wins an enlarged majority in federal elections with the pro-conscription Unionist Party. Details
December 20–21 Battle of Jaffa, a phase of the Battle of Jerusalem. Details

1918

Dates Events
January 8 Woodrow Wilson outlines his Fourteen Points. Details
February to September Allied forces occupy the Jordan Rift Valley. Details
February 9 The Central Powers signed an exclusive protectorate treaty with the Ukrainian People's Republic as part of the negotiations that took place in Brest-Litovsk. Details
February 15–16 Battle of Rarancza.
February 18 – March 3 Operation Faustschlag, last offensive on Eastern Front.
February 19 British begin their assault on Jericho. Details
February 21 The British capture Jericho. Details
Germans capture Minsk. Details
February 24 Germans capture Zhytomyr. Details
February 25 German troops capture Estonia. Details
February 28 Germans capture Pskov and Narva. Details
March 2 Germans capture Kiev. Details
March 3 At Brest-Litovsk, Leon Trotsky signs the peace treaty with Germany.[70] Details
March 7 German artillery bombard the Americans at Rouge Bouquet. Details
March 8–12 Battle of Tell 'Asur.
March 8–13 Battle of Bakhmach.
March 21 – April 5 First phase of the Spring Offensive, Operation Michael (also known as Second Battle of the Somme). The Germans obtain a Pyrrhic victory. Details
March 21–23 The Battle of St. Quentin, first phase of Operation Michael and of the Spring Offensive. Details
March 21 – April 2 First Transjordan attack on Amman.
March 23 – August 7 Artillery bombardment of Paris. Details
March 24–25 First Battle of Bapaume, a phase of Operation Michael. Details
March 25 First Battle of Noyon, a phase of Operation Michael. Details
March 26 French Marshal Ferdinand Foch is appointed Supreme Commander of all Allied forces. Details
March 26–27 Battle of Rosieres, a phase of Operation Michael. Details
Action of Khan Baghdadi.
March 27–31 First Battle of Amman, a phase Of The First Transjordan Attack.
March 28 Third Battle of Arras (also known as First Battle of Arras (1918)), a phase of Operation Michael. Details
March 30 – April 5 First Battle of Villers-Bretonneux, a phase of Operation Michael.
April 1 Royal Air Force founded by combining the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service.
April 4–5 Battle of the Avre, final phase of Operation Michael.
April 7–29 Second phase of the Spring Offensive, Operation Georgette (also known as Battle of the Lys). The results are disappointing for the Germans. Details
April 7–9 Battle of Estaires, first phase of Operation Georgette. Details
April 10–11 Third Battle of Messines, a phase of Operation Georgette. Details
April 12–13 Battle of Hazebrouck, a phase of Operation Georgette. Details
April 13–15 Battle of Bailleul, a phase of Operation Georgette. Details
April 17–19 First Battle of Kemmelberg, a phase of Operation Georgette. Details
April 18 Battle of Bethune, a phase of Operation Georgette. Details
April 24–27 Second Battle of Villers-Bretonneux, a phase of Operation Georgette.
April 25–26 Second Battle of Kemmelberg, a phase of Operation Georgette. Details
April 29 Battle of Scherpenberg, final phase of Operation Georgette. Details
April 30 – May 4 Second Transjordan attack on Shunet Nimrin and Es Salt.
May 7 Treaty of Bucharest between Romania and the Central Powers. It will never be ratified. Details
May 10–11 Battle of Kaniow.
May 21 Ottomans invade Armenia. Details
May 21–29 Battle of Sardarabad, a phase of the invasion of Armenia.
Battle of Abaran, a phase of the invasion of Armenia.
May 24–28 Battle of Karakilisa, a phase of the invasion of Armenia.
May 27 – June 6 Third Battle of the Aisne (also known as Operation Blücher-Yorck, third phase of the Spring Offensive). After initial gains, the German advance is halted. Details
May 28 Battle of Cantigny.
May 29–31 Battle of Skra-di-Legen
June 1–26 Battle of Belleau Wood, part of the German Spring Offensive.
June 8 Action of Arsuf.
June 8 – October Germany interferes in the Caucasus. Details
June 9–12 Fourth phase of the Spring Offensive, Operation Gneisenau (also known as Battle of Matz). Despite substantial territorial gains, the Germans do not achieve their strategic goals Details
June 13–23 Second Battle of the Piave: the Austro-Hungarian offensive is repelled. Details
June 30 Battle of Moreuil Wood.
July 4 Battle of Hamel.
July 14 Battle of Abu Tellul.
July 15 – August 6 Second Battle of the Marne and last German offensive on the Western Front, which fails when the Germans are counterattacked by the French. Details
July 15–17 Champagne-Marne Offensive (consisting of the Fourth Battle of Champagne and the Battle of the Mountain of Reims), a phase of the Second Battle of the Marne. last phase of the Spring Offensive and last German offensive of World War I. Details
July 17 The Tsar and his family were shot early in the morning by the Bolsheviks. Details
July 18 Battle of Chateau-Thierry, a phase of the Second Battle of the Marne. Details
July 18–22 Battle of Soissons,a phase of the Second Battle of the Marne. Details
July 19 Battle of Tardenois, a phase of the Second Battle of the Marne.
August 8 – November 11 Hundred Days Offensive, last offensive on Western Front.
August 8–12 Battle of Amiens, first phase of the Hundred Days Offensive. Details
August 9–12 Battle of Montdidier.
August 13 – September 3 Battle of San Matteo.
August 17–29 Second Battle of Noyon, a phase of the Hundred Days Offensive. Details
August 21 – September 3 Second Battle of the Somme(also known as Third battle of the Somme), a phase of the Hundred Days Offensive. Details
August 21–22 Third Battle of Albert, opening phase of the Second Battle of the Somme. Details
August 21 – September 3 Second Battle of Bapaume, a phase of the Second Battle of the Somme.
August 26 – September 3 Fourth Battle of Arras (also known as Second Battle of Arras (1918)), a phase of the Second Battle of the Somme Details
August 26–30 Fourth Battle of the Scarpe (also known as Battle of the Scarpe (1918)), a phase of the Fourth Battle of Arras. Details
August 26 – September 14 Battle of Baku, last Turkish offensive of the war.
August 31 – September 3 Battle of Mont Saint-Quentin, a phase of the Second Battle of the Somme.
September 1–2 Battle of Peronne, a phase of the Battle of Mont Saint-Quentin. Details
September 2–3 Battle of Drocourt-Queant Line, final phase of the Second Battle of the Somme. Details
September 10 Battle of Savy-Dallon, a phase of the Hundred Days Offensive. Details
September 12 Battle of Havrincourt, a phase of the Hundred Days Offensive. Details
September 12–19 Battle of Saint-Mihiel, a phase of the Hundred Days Offensive.
September 14 Battle of Vauxaillon, a phase of the Hundred Days Offensive. Details
September 14–29 Vardar Offensive, final offensive on the Balkan Front.
September 15 The Allies (French and Serbs) break through the Bulgarian lines at Dobro Polje, a phase of the Vardar Offensive. Details
September 18 Battle of Epehy, a phase of the Hundred Days Offensive.
September 18–19 Third Battle of Doiran, a phase of the Vardar Offensive, The Bulgarians halt the British and Greek advance. Details
September 18 – October 17 Battle of the Hindenburg Line, a phase of the Hundred Days Offensive. The Allies break through the German lines. Details
September 19–25 Battle of Megiddo. The British conquer Palestine. Details
Battle of Nablus, a phase of the Battle of Meggido. Details
Third Transjordan attack, a phase of the Battle of Nablus.
Battle of Sharon, a phase of the Battle of Megiddo.
September 22 The British capture Jisr ed Damieh in the Battle of Sharon. Details
September 25 The British capture Tiberias during the Battle of Sharon. Details
September 19 Battle of Tulkarm, a phase of the Battle of Sharon.
Battle of Arara, a phase of the Battle of Sharon.
September 19–20 Battle of Tabsor, a phase of the Battle of Sharon.
September 20 Capture of Jenin, a phase of the Battle of Sharon.
British capture both Afulah and Beisan during the Battle of Sharon. Details
September 20–21 Battle of Nazareth, a phase of the Battle of Sharon.
September 23 Battle of Haifa, a phase of the Battle of Sharon. Details
September 25 Battle of Samakh, a phase of the Battle of Sharon.
Second Battle of Amman, a phase of the Third Transjordan Attack.
September 26 – November 11 Meuse-Argonne Offensive, the final phase of the Hundred Days Offensive and of World War I. Details
September 26 – October 1 The British enter Damascus. Details
September 26 Battle of Somme-Py (Initial phase of the Meuse-Argonne Offensive). Details
Charge at Irbid, a phase of the Capture of Damascus.
September 26–27 British capture Deraa during the Capture of Damascus. Details
September 27 Battle of Jisr Benat Yakub, a phase of the Capture of Damascus.
September 27 – October 1 Battle of the Canal du Nord, a phase of the Battle of the Hindenburg Line.
September 28 – October 2 Fifth Battle of Ypres (also known as Advance on Flanders), a phase of the Battle of the Hindenburg Line.
September 29 – October 10 Battle of St. Quentin Canal, a phase of the Hundred Days Offensive.
September 30 Bulgaria signs an armistice with the Allies.[71]
Battle of Saint-Thierry (Initial phase of the Meuse-Argonne Offensive). Details
Charge at Kaukab, a phase of the Capture of Damascus.
Charge at Kiswe, a phase of the Capture of Damascus.
October 3 Tsar Ferdinand I of Bulgaria abdicates and Boris III accedes to the throne.
October 3–27 Pursuit to Haritan.
Battle of Blanc Mont Ridge.
October 8–10 Second Battle of Cambrai (also known as Battle of Cambrai (1918)), a phase of the Battle of the Hindenburg Line. Details
October 14–17 Battle of Montfaucon (intermediate phase of the Meuse-Argonne Offensive). Details
October 14–19 Battle of Courtrai, closing phase of the Hundred Days offensive. Details
October 15 Battle of Mont-D'Origny, a phase of the Hundred Days Offensive. Details
October 17–26 Battle of the Selle, closing phase of the Hundred Days Offensive.
October 20 Germany suspends submarine warfare. Details
Battle of Lys and Escaut (Which included the Second Battle of Lys and the Battle of the Escaut), a phase of the Hundred Days Offensive. Details
Battle of Serre, a phase of the Hundred Days Offensive. Details
October 23–30 Battle of Sharqat.
October 24 – November 4 Battle of Vittorio Veneto. The Austro-Hungarian army is routed. The Italians enter Trent and land at Triest. Details
October 24–28 Second Battle of Monte Grappa, beginning phase of Vittorio Veneto.
October 25 Battle of Aleppo. Details
October 29 Wilhelm Groener replaces Erich Ludendorff as Hindenburg's deputy. Details
Germany's Hochseeflotte mutinies.[72] Details
State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs proclaimed. Details
October 30 The Ottoman Empire signs the Armistice of Mudros. Details
November 1 Battle of Chesne (Closing phase of the Meuse-Argonne Offensive). Details
November 1–2 Battle of Valenciennes, closing phase of the Hundred Days Offensive. Details
November 3 Austria-Hungary signs the armistice with Italy, effective November 4.[73]
November 4 Battle of the Sambre, closing phase of the Hundred Days Offensive. Details
Second Battle of Guise, a phase of the Battle of Sambre. Details
Battle of Thierache, a phase of the Battle of Sambre. Details
November 6–11 Advance to the Meuse.
November 9 Germany: Kaiser William II abdicates; republic proclaimed.[74] Details
November 10 Austria-Hungary: Kaiser Charles I abdicates. Details
November 11 At 6 am, Germany signs the Armistice of Compiègne. End of fighting at 11 a.m..[75]
Poland proclaimed.
November 12 Austria proclaimed a republic.
November 14 Czechoslovakia proclaimed a republic. Details
German U-boats interned.
3 days after the armistice, fighting ends in the East African theater when General von Lettow-Vorbeck agrees a cease-fire on hearing of Germany's surrender. Details
November 21 Germany's Hochseeflotte surrendered to the United Kingdom.[72] Details
November 22 The Germans evacuate Luxembourg.
November 25 11 days after agreeing a cease-fire, General von Lettow-Vorbeck formally surrenders his undefeated army at Abercorn in present-day Zambia. Details
November 27 The Germans evacuate Belgium.
December 1 Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes proclaimed. Details

1919

Dates Events
10 January Fakhri Pasha surrenders at Medina. Details
January 18 Treaty of Versailles between the Allies and Germany: the Peace Conference opens in Paris.[76] Details
January 25 Proposal to create the League of Nations accepted. Details
June 21 German High Seas Fleet (53 ships) scuttled in Scapa Flow with nine deaths, the last casualties of the war.[72] Details
June 28 Treaty of Versailles signed.[77] Details
July 8 Germany ratifies the Treaty of Versailles.[78] Details
July 21 The United Kingdom ratifies the Treaty of Versailles.[79] Details
November 10–11 A Banquet in Honour of The President of the French Republic was hosted by King George V and held at Buckingham Palace during the evening hours of November 10. The very first Armistice Day was held on the Grounds of Buckingham Palace on the Morning of November 11. This would set the trend for a day of Remembrance or Remembrance Day for decades to come. Details

1920

Dates Events
January 10 First meeting of the League of Nations held in London. Official end of World War I. Details
Free City of Danzig established.[80] Details
January 21 The Paris Peace Conference ends. Details
February 10 A plebiscite returns Northern Schleswig to Denmark.[81] Details
April 19–26 Conference of Sanremo, Italy, about League of Nations mandates in former Ottoman territories of the Middle East. Details
June 4 Treaty of Trianon between the Allies and Hungary. Details
August 10 Treaty of Sèvres between the Allies and the Ottoman Empire. The treaty is not recognized by the Turkish national movement, which considers the Istanbul government illegitimate.[82] Details
September 8 Gabriele D'Annunzio proclaims in Fiume the Italian Regency of Carnaro. Details
November 1 League of Nations headquarters moved to Geneva, Switzerland. Details
November 12 Treaty of Rapallo between Italy and Yugoslavia. Zadar is annexed by Italy and the Free State of Fiume is established. Details
November 15 The League of Nations holds its first general assembly. Details

Post-1920

Dates Events
1921
October 13 Treaty of Kars between Bolshevik Russia and Turkey. Details
1922
February 6 Washington Naval Treaty, limiting naval tonnage, signed by France, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States. Details
April 10 – May 19 Genoa Conference. Representatives of 34 countries discuss economics in the wake of the Great War. Details
April 16 Treaty of Rapallo between Germany and Bolshevik Russia to normalize diplomatic relations. Details
September 11 Treaty of Kars ratified in Yerevan, Armenia. Details
1923
July 24 Treaty of Lausanne between the Allies and Turkey, successor State to the Ottoman Empire. It supersedes the Treaty of Sèvres.[83] Details
1924
January 27 Treaty of Rome between Italy and Yugoslavia. Fiume is annexed by Italy and the neighboring town of Sušak is assigned to Yugoslavia. Details

Notes

  1. ^ Albertini 1953,第38頁.
  2. ^ Keegan 1998,第53頁.
  3. ^ Lowe 1994,第202頁.
  4. ^ Kriegserklärung [Declaration of War], Wiener Zeitung [Vienna Newspaper], July 28, 1914, Extraausgabe [Special Edition], Amtlicher Teil [Official Section], 19. (PDF). 
  5. ^ Evans 2004,第12頁.
  6. ^ Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany and Czar Nicholas of Russia exchange telegrams - Jul 29, 1914 - HISTORY.com. [2016-10-01]. 
  7. ^ Willmott 2003,第29頁.
  8. ^ Telegramm des Reichskanzlers an den Kaiserlichen Botschafter in Petersburg von 1. August 12:52 p.m. Dringend [ Telegram from the Imperial Chancellor to the Imperial Ambassador in Petersburg, August 1, 12:52 p.m. Urgent], in Auswärtiges Amt [Foreign Office], Das Deutsche Weissbuch, über den Ausbruch des Deutsch-Russisch-Französischen Krieges, Nach dem dem Reichstag Vorgelegten Material [The German White Book, on the Outbreak of the German-Russian-French War, According to the Documents Provided to the Reichstag] (Neumünster/Leipzig: Nordische Velagsanstalt, R. Hieronymus, 1914), 46, Anlage [Annex] 26 (PDF). 
  9. ^ Denmark | International Encyclopedia of the First World War (WW1). encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net. [2015-12-22]. 
  10. ^ The Treaty of Alliance Between Germany and Turkey 2 August 1914, Yale University
  11. ^ Der Reichskanzler an den Botschafter in Paris [The Imperial Chancellor to the Ambassador in Paris], August 3, 1914, in Auswärtiges Amt [Foreign Office], Die Deutschen Dokumente zum Kriegsausbruch [German Documents Relating to the Outbreak of the War], Band [vol.] III, Vom Bekanntwerden der Russischen Allgemeinen Mobilmachung bis Zur Kriegserklärung an Frankreich [From the Publication of the Russian Mobilization to the Declaration of War Against France], (Charlottenburg: Deutsche Verlagsgesellschaft für Politik und Geschichte, 1919), 185, No. 734 (PDF). 
  12. ^ Keegan 1998,第69頁.
  13. ^ Note remise par M. [Julien] Davignon, Ministre des Affaires étrangères, à M. de Below Saleske, Ministre d’Allemagne, Bruxelles, le 3 août 1914 (7 heures du matin) [Note Given by M. [Julien] Davignon, Minister of Foreign Affairs, to M. de Below Saleske, Minister of Germany, Brussels, August 3, 1914, 7 in the morning], in Documents Diplomatiques 1914: La Guerre Européenne (Paris: Ministère des Affaires Étrangères, 1914), 202 (PDF). 
  14. ^ August 1914: the outbreak of war. Switzerland and the First World War. [2015-12-22]. 
  15. ^ Invasion of Belgium. Spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk. [2013-11-13]. 
  16. ^ Daily Mirror Headlines: The Declaration of War, Published 4 August 1914. bbc.co.uk. [9 February 2010]. 
  17. ^ Historians attempt to find WWI's first shot deep in Australian waters. ABC. [16 September 2014]. 
  18. ^ Neiberg 2005,第54–55頁.
  19. ^ 19.00 19.01 19.02 19.03 19.04 19.05 19.06 19.07 19.08 19.09 19.10 19.11 19.12 19.13 19.14 19.15 First World War.com - Feature Articles - Who Declared War and When. www.firstworldwar.com. [2015-12-23]. 
  20. ^ Halpern 1995,第28頁.
  21. ^ Montenegro Declares War on Germany. World History Project. [2016-06-17]. 
  22. ^ Declaration of War Against Austria-Hungary, Aug. 12, 1914 The war against Austria-Hungary was declared on August 12, 1914, and the Declaration was published in the London Gazette on the following day. Foreign Office, Notice of State of War Between Great Britain and Austria-Hungary, August 12, 1914, Supplement to the London Gazette no. 28868 (August 13, 1914): 6375 (PDF). 
  23. ^ Tucker 2005,第605頁.
  24. ^ Tucker 2005,第374頁.
  25. ^ Tucker 2005,第445頁.
  26. ^ Tucker 2005,第459頁.
  27. ^ Farwell 1989,第353頁.
  28. ^ Austria-Hungary Declares War on Belgium. World History Project. [2016-06-17]. 
  29. ^ Creveld 1977,第121頁.
  30. ^ Odgers 1994,第42頁.
  31. ^ Tucker 2005,第xviii頁.
  32. ^ Tucker 2005,第316頁.
  33. ^ Foreign Office, Notice of State of War Between Great Britain and Turkey, November 5, 1914, London Gazette no. 28965 (November 6, 1914): 9011. 
  34. ^ Tucker 2005,第151頁.
  35. ^ Tucker 2005,第943頁.
  36. ^ Rusya Fransa ve İngiltere devletleriyle hal-i harb ilanı hakkında irade-i seniyye [Imperial Decree Concerning the Declaration of a State of War with the States of Russia, France, and the United Kingdom], Nov. 11, 1914 (29 Teşrin-i Evvel 1330), Takvim-i Vekayi, Nov. 12, 1914 (30 Teşrin-i Evvel 1330). (PDF). 
  37. ^ Tucker 2005,第407頁.
  38. ^ Tucker 2005,第578頁.
  39. ^ Tucker 2005,第1052頁.
  40. ^ Tucker 2005,第299頁.
  41. ^ Saturday, 22 August 2009 Michael Duffy. The Battle of Bolimov, 1915. Firstworldwar.com. 2009-08-22 [2013-11-13]. 
  42. ^ Tucker 2005,第337頁.
  43. ^ Tucker 2005,第564頁.
  44. ^ 44.0 44.1 Italy Declares War on Germany. World History Project. [2016-06-17]. 
  45. ^ Tucker 2005,第652頁.
  46. ^ 46.0 46.1 Tucker 2005,第653頁.
  47. ^ Tucker 2005,第721頁.
  48. ^ Tucker 2005,第42頁.
  49. ^ Tucker 2005,第1139頁.
  50. ^ Foreign Office, Notice of State of War Between Great Britain and Bulgaria, October 15, 1915, London Gazette no. 29333 (October 19, 1915): 10257–58. 
  51. ^ Tucker 2005,第323頁.
  52. ^ Tucker 2005,第660頁.
  53. ^ Tucker 2005,第464頁.
  54. ^ Tucker 2005,第1061頁.
  55. ^ Tucker 2005,第1431頁.
  56. ^ Tucker 2005,第366頁.
  57. ^ Tucker 2005,第1092頁.
  58. ^ Tucker 2005,第467頁.
  59. ^ Tucker 2005,第1252頁.
  60. ^ Tucker 2005,第344頁.
  61. ^ Tucker 2005,第245頁.
  62. ^ Tucker 2005,第854頁.
  63. ^ Tucker 2005,第855頁.
  64. ^ Tucker 2005,第434頁.
  65. ^ Tucker 2005,第174頁.
  66. ^ Tucker 2005,第632頁.
  67. ^ Tucker 2005,第115頁.
  68. ^ Tucker 2005,第1286頁
  69. ^ Tucker 2005,第1283頁.
  70. ^ Tucker 2005,第225頁.
  71. ^ Tucker 2005,第242頁.
  72. ^ 72.0 72.1 72.2 Gottschall 2003,第265頁.
  73. ^ Tucker 2005,第563頁.
  74. ^ Boemeke 1998,第85頁.
  75. ^ Boemeke 1998,第84頁.
  76. ^ Boemeke 1998,第478頁.
  77. ^ Boemeke 1998,第246頁.
  78. ^ Boemeke 1998,第414頁.
  79. ^ Boemeke 1998,第566頁.
  80. ^ Tucker 2005,第1223頁.
  81. ^ Tucker 2005,第349頁.
  82. ^ Tucker 2005,第126頁.
  83. ^ Tucker 2005,第674頁.

References

Further reading

External links

Template:War navbox

1

 俄羅斯

表格区

en:Daylight saving time by country

en:List of time zones by country

This is a list representing time zones by country. Countries are ranked by total number of time zones on their territory. Time zones of a country include that of dependent territories (except Antarctic claims). France has the most time zones with 12. Many countries have daylight saving time, one added hour during the local summer, but this list does not include that information. The UTC offset in the list is not valid in practice during daylight saving time.

主权国 时区编号 时区 备注
 法國 12 UTC−10:00 — most of French Polynesia
UTC−09:30Marquesas Islands
UTC−09:00Gambier Islands
UTC−08:00Clipperton Island
UTC−04:00 (AST) — Guadeloupe, Martinique, Saint Barthélemy, Saint Martin
UTC−03:00 (PMST) — French Guiana, Saint Pierre and Miquelon
UTC+01:00 (CET) — Metropolitan France
UTC+03:00Mayotte
UTC+04:00Réunion
UTC+05:00Kerguelen Islands, Crozet Islands
UTC+11:00New Caledonia
UTC+12:00Wallis and Futuna
Time in France
 美國 11 UTC−12:00 (unofficial) — Baker Island and Howland Island
UTC−11:00 (ST) — American Samoa, Jarvis Island, Kingman Reef, Midway Atoll and Palmyra Atoll
UTC−10:00 (HAT) — Hawaii, most of the Aleutian Islands, and Johnston Atoll
UTC−09:00 (AKT) — most of the state of Alaska
UTC−08:00 (PT) — California, Oregon, Washington, Nevada, and parts of Idaho
UTC−07:00 (MT) — Arizona, Colorado, Montana, New Mexico, Utah, Wyoming, parts of Idaho and Oregon; western parts of Kansas, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Texas
UTC−06:00 (CT) — Gulf Coast, Tennessee Valley, U.S. Interior Highlands, Great Plains, and most of Texas
UTC−05:00 (ET) — the states on the Atlantic coast, the eastern two-thirds of the Ohio Valley, most of Michigan, Bajo Nuevo Bank, Navassa Island and Serranilla Bank
UTC−04:00 (AT) — Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands

UTC−03:00 (CLST) — Palmer Station
UTC+10:00 (ChT) — Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands
UTC+12:00 (unofficial) — Wake Island, McMurdo Station, and Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station

Time in the United States
 俄羅斯 11 UTC+02:00 (Kaliningrad Time) — Kaliningrad Oblast
UTC+03:00 (Moscow Time) — Most of European Russia and all railroads throughout Russia
UTC+04:00 (Samara Time) — Astrakhan Oblast, Samara Oblast, Saratov Oblast, Udmurtia, and Ulyanovsk Oblast
UTC+05:00 (Yekaterinburg Time) — Bashkortostan, Chelyabinsk Oblast, Khanty–Mansia, Kurgan Oblast, Orenburg Oblast, Perm Krai, Sverdlovsk Oblast, Tyumen Oblast, and Yamalia
UTC+06:00 (Omsk Time) — Omsk Oblast
UTC+07:00 (Krasnoyarsk Time) — Altai Krai, Altai Republic, Kemerovo Oblast, Khakassia, Krasnoyarsk Krai, Novosibirsk Oblast, Tomsk Oblast, and Tuva
UTC+08:00 (Irkutsk Time) — Buryatia and Irkutsk Oblast
UTC+09:00 (Yakutsk Time) — Amur Oblast, western Sakha Republic, and Zabaykalsky Krai
UTC+10:00 (Vladivostok Time) — The Jewish Autonomous Oblast, Khabarovsk Krai, Primorsky Krai, and central Sakha Republic
UTC+11:00 (Magadan Time) — Magadan Oblast, eastern Sakha, and Sakhalin Oblast
UTC+12:00 (Kamchatka Time) — Chukotka, and Kamchatka Krai
Time in Russia
 南极洲 10 UTC−03:00 (CLST) — Palmer Station
UTC-03:00 (ART) — Rothera Station
UTC±00:00 (GMT) — Troll Station
UTC+03:00 (UTC+03:00) — Syowa Station
UTC+05:00Mawson Station
UTC+06:00Vostok Station
UTC+07:00 (UTC+07:00) — Davis Station
UTC+10:00Dumont-d'Urville Station
UTC+11:00Casey Station, Macquarie Island
UTC+12:00McMurdo Station
Time in Antarctica
 英国 9 UTC−08:00Pitcairn Islands
UTC−05:00Cayman Islands
UTC−04:00 (AST) — Anguilla, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Montserrat, Turks and Caicos Islands
UTC−03:00 (FKST) — Falkland Islands
UTC−02:00South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
UTC (GMT in winter/BST in summer) — main territory of the United Kingdom, Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, Guernsey, Isle of Man, Jersey
UTC+01:00 (CET) — Gibraltar
UTC+02:00 (EET) — Akrotiri and Dhekelia
UTC+06:00British Indian Ocean Territory
Time in the United Kingdom
 澳大利亞 8 UTC+05:00Heard and McDonald Islands
UTC+06:30Cocos (Keeling) Islands
UTC+07:00 (CXT) — Christmas Island
UTC+08:00 (AWST) — Western Australia
UTC+09:30 (ACST) — South Australia, Northern Territory
UTC+10:00 (AEST) — Queensland, New South Wales, Australian Capital Territory, Victoria, Tasmania
UTC+10:30Lord Howe Island
UTC+11:00 (NFT) — Norfolk Island
Time in Australia
 加拿大 6 UTC−08:00 (PST) — larger western part of British Columbia, Tungsten and the associated Cantung Mine in Northwest Territories, Yukon
UTC−07:00 (MST) — Alberta, some eastern parts of British Columbia, most of Northwest Territories, Nunavut (west of 102°W and all communities in the Kitikmeot Region), Lloydminster and surrounding area in Saskatchewan
UTC−06:00 (CST) — Manitoba, Nunavut (between 85° West and 102°W except western Southampton Island), Ontario (Northwestern Ontario west of 90°W with some exceptions and Big Trout Lake area east of 90°W), Saskatchewan except Lloydminster
UTC−05:00 (EST) — Nunavut east of 85°W and entire Southampton Island, Ontario east of 90°W (except Big Trout Lake area) plus several more western areas, Quebec (most of province)
UTC−04:00 (AST) — Labrador (all but southeastern tip), New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, eastern part of Quebec
UTC−03:30 (NST) — Labrador (southeastern), Newfoundland
Time in Canada
 丹麥 5 UTC−04:00Thule Air Base in Greenland
UTC−03:00 — most of Greenland, including inhabited south coast and west coast
UTC−01:00Ittoqqortoormiit and surrounding area in Greenland's Tunu county
UTCDanmarkshavn weather station and surrounding area in Greenland's Tunu county, Faroe Islands
UTC+01:00 — (CET) — metropolitan Denmark
Time in Denmark
 新西蘭 5 UTC−11:00Niue
UTC−10:00Cook Islands
UTC+12:00 — main territory of New Zealand
UTC+12:45Chatham Islands
UTC+13:00Tokelau
Time in New Zealand
 巴西 4 UTC−05:00 (Brasília time −2) — Acre and Southwestern Amazonas
UTC−04:00 (Brasília time −1) — Most part of the Amazonas State, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Rondônia, Roraima
UTC−03:00 (Brasília time) — the Southeast Region, the South Region, the Northeast Region (except some islands), Goiás, Distrito Federal, Tocantins, Pará, Amapá
UTC−02:00 (Brasília time +1) — few islands on the east coast of Brazil (Fernando de Noronha, Trindade and Martim Vaz, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago)
Time in Brazil
 墨西哥 4 UTC−08:00 (Zone 4 or Northwest Zone) — the state of Baja California
UTC−07:00 (Zone 3 or Pacific Zone) — the states of Baja California Sur, Chihuahua, Nayarit, Sinaloa and Sonora
UTC−06:00 (Zone 2 or Central Zone) — most of Mexico
UTC−05:00 (Zone 1 or Southeast Zone) — the state of Quintana Roo
Time in Mexico
 印度尼西亞 3 UTC+07:00 (Western Indonesian Standard Time) — islands of Sumatra, Java, provinces of West Kalimantan and Central Kalimantan
UTC+08:00 (Central Indonesian Standard Time) — islands of Sulawesi, Bali, provinces of East Nusa Tenggara, West Nusa Tenggara, East Kalimantan and South Kalimantan
UTC+09:00 (Eastern Indonesian Standard Time) — provinces of Maluku, North Maluku, Papua and West Papua
Time in Indonesia
 基里巴斯 3 UTC+12:00Gilbert Islands
UTC+13:00Phoenix Islands
UTC+14:00Line Islands
 智利 2 UTC−05:00Easter Island
UTC−03:00 — main territory
Time in Chile
 刚果民主共和国 2 UTC+01:00 (WAT) — western part of the country
UTC+02:00 (CAT) — eastern part of the country
 厄瓜多尔 2 UTC−06:00 (GALT) — Galápagos Province
UTC−05:00 (Ecuador Time) — main territory of Ecuador
Time in Ecuador
 密克羅尼西亞聯邦 2 UTC+10:00 — the states of Chuuk and Yap
UTC+11:00 — the states of Kosrae and Pohnpei
 哈萨克斯坦 2 UTC+05:00 — western Kazakhstan
UTC+06:00 — eastern Kazakhstan
Time in Kazakhstan
 荷兰王国 2 UTC−04:00 (AST) — Caribbean municipalities and constituent countries
UTC+01:00 (CET) — main territory of the Netherlands
 蒙古 2 UTC+07:00 — the provinces of Khovd, Uvs and Bayan-Ölgii
UTC+08:00 — most of the country
Time in Mongolia
 巴布亚新几内亚 2 UTC+10:00 — most of the country
UTC+11:00Autonomous Region of Bougainville (Bougainville Standard Time)
 葡萄牙 2 UTC−01:00Azores
UTC (WET) — Madeira and the main territory of Portugal
Time in Portugal
 南非 2 UTC+02:00 (South African Standard Time) — main territory
UTC+03:00Prince Edward Islands
 西班牙 2 UTC (WET) — Canary Islands
UTC+01:00 (CET) — main territory of Spain
Time in Spain
 阿富汗 1 UTC+04:30 Time in Afghanistan
 阿尔巴尼亚 1 UTC+01:00 (CET)
 阿尔及利亚 1 UTC+01:00 (CET)
 安道尔 1 UTC+01:00 (CET)
 安哥拉 1 UTC+01:00 (WAT)
 安地卡及巴布達 1 UTC−04:00 (AST)
 阿根廷 1 UTC−03:00 (ART) Time in Argentina
 亞美尼亞 1 UTC+04:00 Time in Armenia
 奥地利 1 UTC+01:00 (CET)
 阿塞拜疆 1 UTC+04:00 Time in Azerbaijan
 巴哈马 1 UTC−05:00 (EST)
 巴林 1 UTC+03:00
 孟加拉国 1 UTC+06:00 (BDT) Time in Bangladesh
 巴巴多斯 1 UTC−04:00
 白俄羅斯 1 UTC+03:00 (FET)
 比利時 1 UTC+01:00 (CET)
 伯利兹 1 UTC−06:00
 贝宁 1 UTC+01:00 (WAT)
 不丹 1 UTC+06:00 (BTT) Time in Bhutan
 玻利维亚 1 UTC−04:00
 波黑 1 UTC+01:00 (CET) Time in Bosnia and Herzegovina
 博茨瓦纳 1 UTC+02:00 (CAT)
 文莱 1 UTC+08:00
 保加利亚 1 UTC+02:00 (EET)
 布吉納法索 1 UTC
 布隆迪 1 UTC+02:00 (CAT)
 柬埔寨 1 UTC+07:00 Time in Cambodia
 喀麦隆 1 UTC+01:00 (WAT)
 佛得角 1 UTC−01:00 (Cape Verde Time)
 中非 1 UTC+01:00 (WAT)
 乍得 1 UTC+01:00 (WAT)
 中國 1 UTC+08:00 (Chinese Standard Time) Time in China
 哥伦比亚 1 UTC−05:00 Time in Colombia
 科摩罗 1 UTC+03:00 (EAT)
 刚果共和国 1 UTC+01:00 (WAT)
 哥斯达黎加 1 UTC−06:00 Time in Costa Rica
 克罗地亚 1 UTC+01:00 (CET)
 古巴 1 UTC−05:00
 賽普勒斯 1 UTC+02:00 (EET)
 捷克 1 UTC+01:00 (CET) (CRT) Time in the Czech Republic
 吉布提 1 UTC+03:00 (EAT)
 多米尼克 1 UTC−04:00
 多米尼加 1 UTC−04:00
 东帝汶 1 UTC+09:00 Time in East Timor
 埃及 1 UTC+02:00 (EET)
 薩爾瓦多 1 UTC−06:00
 赤道几内亚 1 UTC+01:00 (WAT)
 厄立特里亚 1 UTC+03:00 (EAT)
 爱沙尼亚 1 UTC+02:00 (EET)
 衣索比亞 1 UTC+03:00 (EAT) Time in Ethiopia
 斐济 1 UTC+12:00
 芬兰 1 UTC+02:00 (EET)
 加彭 1 UTC+01:00 (WAT)
 冈比亚 1 UTC
 格鲁吉亚 1 UTC+04:00 Time in Georgia
 德國 1 UTC+01:00 (CET) Time in Germany
 加纳 1 UTC
 希臘 1 UTC+02:00 (EET)
 格瑞那達 1 UTC−04:00
 危地马拉 1 UTC−06:00
 几内亚 1 UTC
 几内亚比绍 1 UTC
 圭亚那 1 UTC−04:00
 海地 1 UTC−05:00
 洪都拉斯 1 UTC−06:00
 香港 1 UTC+08:00 (HKT) Time in Hong Kong
 匈牙利 1 UTC+01:00 (CET) Time in Hungary
 冰島 1 UTC
 印度 1 UTC+05:30 (IST) Time in India
 伊朗 1 UTC+03:30 (IRST) Time in Iran
 伊拉克 1 UTC+03:00
 愛爾蘭 1 UTC (WET) Time in Ireland
 以色列 1 UTC+02:00 (IST) Time in Israel
 義大利 1 UTC+01:00 (CET)
 科特迪瓦 1 UTC
 牙买加 1 UTC−05:00
 日本 1 UTC+09:00 (JST) Time in Japan
 约旦 1 UTC+02:00
 肯尼亚 1 UTC+03:00 (EAT) Time in Kenya
 Korea, North 1 UTC+08:30 (Pyongyang Time) Time in North Korea
 Korea, South 1 UTC+09:00 (Korea Standard Time) Time in South Korea
 科威特 1 UTC+03:00 (Arabia Standard Time)
 科索沃 1 UTC+01:00
 吉尔吉斯斯坦 1 UTC+06:00 Time in Kyrgyzstan
 老挝 1 UTC+07:00
 拉脫維亞 1 UTC+02:00 (EET)
 黎巴嫩 1 UTC+02:00 (EET)
 賴索托 1 UTC+02:00
 利比里亚 1 UTC
 利比亞 1 UTC+02:00 (EET)
 列支敦斯登 1 UTC+01:00 (CET)
 立陶宛 1 UTC+02:00 (EET)
 盧森堡 1 UTC+01:00 (CET)
 澳門 (China) 1 UTC+08:00 (Macau Standard Time) Time in Macau
 馬其頓 1 UTC+01:00 (CET)
 马达加斯加 1 UTC+03:00 (EAT)
 马拉维 1 UTC+02:00 (CAT)
 马来西亚 1 UTC+08:00 (Malaysian Standard Time) Time in Malaysia
 馬爾地夫 1 UTC+05:00
 马里 1 UTC
 馬爾他 1 UTC+01:00 (CET) Time in Malta
 马绍尔群岛 1 UTC+12:00
 毛里塔尼亚 1 UTC
 模里西斯 1 UTC+04:00 (Mauritius Time)
 摩尔多瓦 1 UTC+02:00 (EET)
 摩納哥 1 UTC+01:00 (CET)
 蒙特內哥羅 1 UTC+01:00 (CET)
 摩洛哥 1 UTC (WET)
 莫桑比克 1 UTC+02:00 (CAT)
 緬甸 1 UTC+06:30 (MST) Time in Myanmar
 纳米比亚 1 UTC+01:00 (WAT)
 瑙鲁 1 UTC+12:00
 尼泊尔 1 UTC+05:45 (Nepal Time) Time in Nepal
 尼加拉瓜 1 UTC−06:00
 尼日尔 1 UTC+01:00 (WAT)
 奈及利亞 1 UTC+01:00 (WAT)
 挪威 1 UTC+01:00 (CET) Time in Norway
 阿曼 1 UTC+04:00
 巴基斯坦 1 UTC+05:00 (PKT) Time in Pakistan
 帛琉 1 UTC+09:00
 巴拿马 1 UTC−05:00
 巴拉圭 1 UTC−04:00
 秘魯 1 UTC−05:00 (PET) Time in Peru
 菲律賓 1 UTC+08:00 (PHT) Time in the Philippines
 波蘭 1 UTC+01:00 (CET)
 卡塔尔 1 UTC+03:00 (Arabia Standard Time)
 羅馬尼亞 1 UTC+02:00 (EET)
 卢旺达 1 UTC+02:00 (CAT)
 圣基茨和尼维斯 1 UTC−04:00
 圣卢西亚 1 UTC−04:00
 圣文森特和格林纳丁斯 1 UTC−04:00
 萨摩亚 1 UTC+13:00 Time in Samoa
 圣马力诺 1 UTC+01:00 (CET)
 聖多美和普林西比 1 UTC
 沙烏地阿拉伯 1 UTC+03:00 (Arabia Standard Time) Time in Saudi Arabia
 塞内加尔 1 UTC
 塞爾維亞 1 UTC+01:00 (CET)
 塞舌尔 1 UTC+04:00 (Seychelles Time)
 塞拉利昂 1 UTC
 新加坡 1 UTC+08:00 (SST) Time in Singapore
 斯洛伐克 1 UTC+01:00 (CET)
 斯洛維尼亞 1 UTC+01:00 (CET)
 所罗门群岛 1 UTC+11:00
 索马里 1 UTC+03:00 (EAT)
 南蘇丹 1 UTC+03:00 (EAT)
 斯里蘭卡 1 UTC+05:30 (SLST) Time in Sri Lanka
 苏丹 1 UTC+03:00 (EAT)
 苏里南 1 UTC−03:00
 斯威士兰 1 UTC+02:00
 瑞典 1 UTC+01:00 (CET)
 瑞士 1 UTC+01:00 (CET) Time in Switzerland
 叙利亚 1 UTC+02:00 (EET) Time in Syria
 臺灣 1 UTC+08:00 Time in Taiwan
 塔吉克斯坦 1 UTC+05:00
 坦桑尼亚 1 UTC+03:00 (EAT)
 泰國 1 UTC+07:00 (THA) Time in Thailand
 多哥 1 UTC
 汤加 1 UTC+13:00
 千里達及托巴哥 1 UTC−04:00
 突尼西亞 1 UTC+01:00 (CET)
 土耳其 1 UTC+03:00 (TRT)
 土库曼斯坦 1 UTC+05:00
 图瓦卢 1 UTC+12:00
 乌干达 1 UTC+03:00 (EAT)
 烏克蘭 1 UTC+02:00[1] (EET) Time in Ukraine
 阿联酋 1 UTC+04:00 Time in the United Arab Emirates
 乌拉圭 1 UTC−03:00 Time in Uruguay
 乌兹别克斯坦 1 UTC+05:00 (Uzbekistan Time) Time in Uzbekistan
 瓦努阿圖 1 UTC+11:00
 梵蒂冈 1 UTC+01:00 (CET)
 委內瑞拉 1 UTC−04:00 Time in Venezuela
 越南 1 UTC+07:00 (Indochina Time) Time in Vietnam
 葉門 1 UTC+03:00
 尚比亞 1 UTC+02:00 (CAT)
 辛巴威 1 UTC+02:00 (CAT)

See also

References

世界各地区现在时刻一览表

按此更新

中文维基現在的日期與時間是2024年4月27日 16時08分(UTC按此更新

中国北京现在的日期与时间是2024年4月28日00:08

注:整个中国使用相同的时区,这就使得这个时区特别的大。在中国最西部的地区,太阳最高的时候是下午3点,在最东部是上午11点。单纯从地理規劃来看,整个中国横跨了从东五区(UTC+5)到东九区(UTC+9)共计五个时区。請參見中國時區新疆时间

时刻 使用地区
2024年4月27日05:08 中途岛 纽埃岛 美属萨摩亚
2024年4月27日06:08 阿拉斯加州 阿留申群岛美国夏威夷州美国约翰斯顿岛美国托克劳新西兰

库克群岛新西兰社会群岛法属波利尼西亚土阿莫土群岛法属波利尼西亚土布艾群岛法属波利尼西亚

2024年4月27日06:38 马克萨斯群岛法属波利尼西亚
2024年4月27日07:08

美国阿拉斯加州甘比尔群岛法属波利尼西亚

2024年4月27日08:08 加拿大育空地区, 不列颠哥伦比亚省墨西哥下加利福尼亚州皮特凯恩群岛英国

美国加利福尼亚州, 爱达荷州, 内华达州, 俄勒冈州, 华盛顿州

2024年4月27日09:08 加拿大艾伯塔省西北地方努纳武特地区

墨西哥南下加利福尼亞州奇瓦瓦州納亞里特州錫那羅亞州索諾拉州

美国亚利桑那州科罗拉多州爱达荷州(南方)、蒙大拿州, 内布拉斯加州(西部)、 新墨西哥州北达科他州(西部)、南达科他州犹他州怀俄明州

2024年4月27日10:08

加拿大马尼托巴省, 努纳武特地区中部, 安大略省西部, 萨斯喀彻温省)。

墨西哥 伯利兹 危地马拉 洪都拉斯 尼加拉瓜 萨尔瓦多 哥斯达黎加 科隆群岛厄瓜多尔复活节岛智利

美国亚拉巴马州, 阿肯色州, 伊利诺伊州, 艾奥瓦州, 堪萨斯州, 肯塔基州(西部), 路易斯安那州, 明尼苏达州, 密西西比州, 密苏里州, 内布拉斯加州(东部), 北达科他州, 俄克拉何马州, 南达科他州(东部), 田纳西州(中西部), 得克萨斯州, 威斯康星州

2024年4月27日11:08

加拿大努納武特地區东部、安大略省魁北克省

巴哈马 古巴 特克斯和凯科斯群岛英国海地 开曼群岛英国牙买加 哥伦比亚 巴拿马 厄瓜多尔 秘鲁

美国康涅狄格州, 特拉华州, 华盛顿特区, 佛罗里达州, 佐治亚州, 印第安纳州, 肯塔基州(东部), 缅因州, 马里兰州, 马萨诸塞州, 密歇根州, 新罕布什尔州, 新泽西州, 纽约州, 北卡罗来纳州, 俄亥俄州, 宾夕法尼亚州, 罗得岛州, 南卡罗来纳州, 田纳西州(东部), 佛蒙特州, 弗吉尼亚州, 西弗吉尼亚州

2024年4月27日12:08

格陵兰丹麦

加拿大紐芬蘭省, 新不倫瑞克省, 新斯科舍省, 爱德华王子岛省,魁北克省

百慕大英国多米尼加 波多黎各美国美属维尔京群岛 英属维尔京群岛 安圭拉英国圣基茨和尼维斯 安提瓜和巴布达 蒙特塞拉特英国瓜德羅普法国多米尼克 马提尼克法国圣卢西亚 圣文森特和格林纳丁斯 巴巴多斯 格林纳达 阿魯巴荷兰荷属安的列斯 特立尼达和多巴哥 圭亚那

巴西亚马孙州阿克里州马托格罗索州南马托格罗索州帕拉州(西部),朗多尼亚州罗赖马州

玻利维亚 智利 巴拉圭 福克兰群岛(英国) 委内瑞拉

2024年4月27日12:38

加拿大纽芬兰省

2024年4月27日13:08

阿根廷 巴哈马

巴西阿拉戈斯州, 阿马帕州, 巴伊亚州, 塞阿拉州, 联邦区, 圣埃斯皮里图州, 戈亚斯州, 马拉尼昂州, 米纳斯吉拉斯州, 帕拉州东部, 帕拉伊巴州, 巴拉那州, 伯南布哥州, 皮奥伊州, 里约热内卢州, 北里奥格兰德州, 南里奥格兰德州, 圣卡塔琳娜州, 圣保罗州, 塞尔希培州, 托坎廷斯州

法属圭亚那 格陵兰 圣皮埃爾和密克隆群島 苏里南 乌拉圭

2024年4月27日14:08

巴西费尔南多-迪诺罗尼亚群岛

2024年4月27日15:08

佛得角 葡萄牙亚速尔群岛

2024年4月27日16:08

布基纳法索 科特迪瓦 法罗群岛 冈比亚 加纳 几内亚 几内亚比绍 冰岛 爱尔兰 利比里亚 马里 毛里塔尼亚 摩洛哥 葡萄牙 圣赫勒拿 圣多美和普林西比 塞内加尔 塞拉利昂 西班牙加那利群島多哥 英国

2024年4月27日17:08

阿尔巴尼亚 安道尔 安哥拉 奥地利 比利时 贝宁 波斯尼亚黑塞哥维那 喀麦隆 中非共和国 乍得 刚果共和国 刚果民主共和国金沙萨,Bandungu, Bas-Zaire, Equateur) 克罗地亚 捷克 丹麦 赤道几内亚 法国 加彭 德国 直布罗陀 匈牙利 意大利 列支敦士登 卢森堡 马其頓 摩纳哥 黑山 纳米比亚 荷兰 尼日尔 尼日利亚 挪威 波兰 圣马力诺 塞尔维亚 斯洛伐克 斯洛文尼亚 西班牙 斯瓦爾巴群島揚馬延岛 瑞典 瑞士 梵蒂冈

2024年4月27日18:08

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