用户:A22234798/新加坡战役
新加坡战役 | |||||||
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第二次世界大战的太平洋战争的一部分 | |||||||
![]() 1942年2月15日,日本军官带领着亚瑟·佩希瓦中将走在白旗底下,前往协商新加坡盟军投降的地点。这是历史上规模最大的英军主力部队投降。 | |||||||
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参战方 | |||||||
马来亚司令部:![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() 第232中队 (有限介入) |
第二十五军:![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() | ||||||
指挥官与领导者 | |||||||
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兵力 | |||||||
85,000人 | 36,000人 | ||||||
伤亡与损失 | |||||||
85,000人 5,000人战死或受伤 80,000人被俘 |
4,485人 1,713人战死 2,772人受伤[2] |
新加坡战役(或称新加坡保卫战、新加坡沦陷)是二战的东南亚战场中重要的一战,日军在此战中向同盟国据守的新加坡要塞进攻。新加坡是大英帝国在东南亚重要的军事基地,并素有“东方的直布罗陀”的美名。这场战役从1942年2月8日持续到15日。
最终日军攻陷新加坡,且这是史上最大一批英军主力部队的投降。[2]这批部队约有80,000人,分别来自英军、印度军及澳大利亚军,与马来亚战役中被日军俘虏的50,000人,一同成为了战俘。英国首相温斯顿·丘吉尔称新加坡的沦陷给日本是可耻的,并称那是英国历史上“最沉痛的浩劫”(worst disaster)与“规模最大的投降”(largest capitulation)。[3] 仅仅七天内,号称“坚不可摧”的新加坡堡垒便告沦陷。
背景
战争爆发
为了回应日本持续的侵略中国,盟国对日本发起了贸易禁运。日军为了寻求必要材料的替代资源以便能在太平洋战争中对抗盟军,于是他们入侵马来亚半岛。[4]新加坡借由新柔长堤与马来亚南部连接。日军认为新加坡既能做为港口,又可做为侵略其他盟军控制区的跳板,还能巩固已经占领的领土。
日军还试图消灭在中国抗日战争中支持中国的新加坡人。马来亚和新加坡的华人曾以经济支援来帮助中国对抗日本的侵略,然而这些努力却因派系不同,而使援助被分别分予国共内战中的双方。尽管西安事变让国民党与共产党重新合作抗日,但双方间的斗争却仍持续著。援助资金除了用于人道主义经援之外,还被进一步瓜分给国民党或共产党。然而这些援助仍对阻挠日军在中国的进展有所贡献,陈嘉庚是新加坡华人社区内的著名慈善家,也是个重要的经援者,许多救济的推动与组织都是他发起的。新加坡华人各种形式对中国的援助,最终成了日本入侵马来亚与新加坡的动机之一。
入侵马来亚
历史系列条目 |
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新加坡历史 |
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日本第二十五军从法属印度支那出发,于1941年12月8日对泰国及马来亚北部发起两栖作战,开启入侵的序幕。[5]这项行动与日军偷袭珍珠港的时间点相近,目的是为了阻止美国介入东南亚战事。在泰国的日军强迫泰国政府将泰国的军事基地借予日军,以便日军能使用基地去入侵东南亚地区,然后再透过泰马边界入侵马来亚地区。与此同时,日军开始战略轰炸新加坡,并从12月29日开始空袭新加坡,但拥有充足弹药的高射炮防止了日军投下的炸弹摧毁新加坡岛。
日本第二十五军在马来亚北部遭遇到英属印度陆军第三军团的抵抗。虽然第二十五军与在马来亚及新加坡的盟军相比下寡不敌众,但日军指挥官集中了他们的兵力,且日军还在密接支援、装甲、部队协调、作战战术及作战经验等等均占上风。此外,尽管日军持续使用包抄攻击,英军还是多次让自己陷入被包抄的危险,并相信马来亚丛林是无法通行的。大日本帝国陆军航空队数量远胜对手,且其飞行员所受之训练也好过在马来亚、婆罗洲及新加坡未受训练的盟军飞官,再加上盟军拥有的装备也较日军来的低劣;日本空军优秀的战斗机(尤其是零式舰上战斗机)帮助日本夺取了空优;而盟军没有坦克,只有些许装甲车辆的情形,以上种种情形均导致他们陷入极大的不利。
“Z舰队”所属的威尔士亲王号战舰、却敌号战列巡洋舰及四艘驱逐舰在日军空袭前抵达马来亚地区。这支舰队的抵达原是用以威吓日本,然而日本空军却将威尔士亲王号与却敌号击沉,使得马来亚半岛东海岸暴露在日军两栖突袭的危险中。日军迅速孤立、包抄并逼降了防守海岸的印度军,并在人数劣势下持续在半岛上推进及摧毁盟军防线。另外日军也使用脚踏车步兵及轻型坦克来快速通过马来亚丛林。
![](http://images.weserv.nl/?url=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Singapore_causeway_blown_up.jpg/220px-Singapore_causeway_blown_up.jpg)
虽然有更多的盟军单位(包含澳大利亚第八师)加入这场战役,日军仍能阻止盟军重整,并占领城市,向新加坡方向前进。新加坡是美英荷澳联合指挥部(ABDACOM)的支柱,该指挥部也是二战中盟军第一个联合指挥部。新加坡还控制了印度洋与太平洋间的麻六甲海峡(为主要船只出入处)。1月31日,最后一批盟军离开马来亚,盟军工兵炸毁新柔长堤以切断柔佛州及新加坡的连接。不久后,日军透过伪装成新加坡平民,由充气船通过柔佛海峡渗透进新加坡城内。
序幕
![](http://images.weserv.nl/?url=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Singapore_map_1942.jpg/325px-Singapore_map_1942.jpg)
日军入侵新加坡的前几星期,盟军正陷入高阶军官间的疲弱及公开破坏性的不和,[6]以及来自澳洲总理约翰·科廷的压力。[7]驻军总司令亚瑟·佩希瓦中将拥有85,000名兵力,账面上似乎超越四个师的人数。在第一线驻守的部队共有38个步兵营(约70,000人,13营来自英军,6个来自澳大利亚,17个来自英属印度,还有两营来自马来人)及三个机枪营。由默顿·贝克威斯-史密斯少将指挥的英军第十八步兵师刚抵达新加坡且兵力完整,但缺乏经验与妥善的训练;多数单位并未达到满编,有些甚至因为在马来亚战役中遭到重创而被合并。而当地的步兵营没有作战经验,有的甚至没受过训练。[8]
佩希瓦从澳大利亚第八师中调拨两个旅给戈登·班奈特,让他负责防守新加坡岛的西侧,包含西北方易受入侵的几个点。这里主要是红树林沼泽与丛林,其间有河流与小溪穿过。西侧区域的核心是登加空军基地,该空军基地是当时新加坡最大的机场。澳大利亚第二十二旅被指派到西侧去戍守长达10 mi(16 km)的区域;第二十七旅则被分配到新柔长堤西边,一块大小约4,000 yd(3,700米)的区域,这些步兵皆拥有刚抵达的澳大利亚第四分之二机枪营(Australian 2/4th Machine-Gun Battalion[9])来加强防御。另外,第四十四印度步兵旅也由班奈特负责指挥。
由路易斯·希斯指挥的印度第三军团(辖下包含B.W.基指挥的印度第十一步兵师、英军第十八师及英属印度第十五步兵旅)被派驻东北侧,被人称为“北方地带”的区块,那里有座海军基地位于三巴旺。包含市中心东南方地区的“南方地带”,由法兰克·基斯·西蒙斯指挥的部队负责防守。他的部队约由18营组成,其中包含马来亚第一步兵旅、海峡殖民地志愿军及英属印度第十二步兵旅。
山下奉文将军及其军官透过空中侦察、陆上侦察兵、渗透分子及能看穿海峡的制高点(像是宁静的武吉王宫,那是柔佛苏丹的皇宫),完完整整的了解了盟军的部署。他们就在宁静的武吉王宫及柔佛州的苏丹依布拉欣大楼内驻扎与规划入侵新加坡的事宜。[10][11]
虽然山下奉文的上司认为武吉王宫是个易受攻击的目标,但他仍有信心英军不会朝皇宫开火,因为那是神圣且为柔佛苏丹的所在地。山下的猜测是正确的,事后证明英军根本不敢攻击皇宫一带。
![](http://images.weserv.nl/?url=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Coastal_defence_gun_at_Singapore.jpg/150px-Coastal_defence_gun_at_Singapore.jpg)
盟军从2月3日开始受到日军的炮击,同时日本空军在接下来五天内加强了空袭的强度。随着陆空两方炮轰强度的增加,盟军单位与其指挥官间的通讯遭到重创,并严重影响新加坡岛的防务设置。
新加坡著名的大孔径海岸炮群,包含两座炮台,一座拥有三门15英寸(380 mm)火炮,另一座则拥有两门15英寸(380 mm)火炮,炮群拥有穿甲弹及高能炸药可供反击。其中储存的穿甲弹主要是被设计用来击穿重装甲保护的战舰,而对人体伤害反而并不有效。对于火炮不能向日军开火是肇因于在设计时只能面向南方的说法,这是个误解,因为事实并非如此。虽然缺乏高能炸药的原因就是认为敌方不会从北方来,但大部分的火炮都能转向北方开火。Although placed to fire on enemy ships to the south, most of the guns could turn northwards and they did fire at the invaders. Military analysts later estimated that if the guns had been well supplied with HE shells the Japanese attackers would have suffered heavy casualties, but the invasion would not have been prevented by this means alone.
山下奉文拥有来自三个师的三万多人,其中包含西村琢磨少将麾下的近卫师团、松井拓郎少将指挥的大日本帝国第五师团以及由牟田口廉也率领的大日本帝国第十八师团。精锐近卫师团还包含一轻坦克旅。
战斗
日军登陆
![](http://images.weserv.nl/?url=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Sarimbun_battle.jpg/220px-Sarimbun_battle.jpg)
日军的进攻因新柔长堤被炸毁而推迟了一星期。2月8日晚上8点30分,来自第五师与第十八师的四千人发起了对新加坡岛的第一波攻击,澳洲机枪手立即对他们的船只进行攻击。日军突袭莎琳汶沙滩时,遭遇了由哈洛德·泰勒旅长指挥的澳大利亚第二十二旅,双方一阵交火。
激烈的战斗持续竟日[12],但在日军人数不断增加,以及日军火力、空优及情报均占优势的情形下,盟军开始败退。在岛的西北地带,日军利用河流与小溪逐渐穿越盟军防线。到了午夜,两个澳大利亚旅已经互相失去联系,且第二十二旅则被迫撤退。半夜一点钟,更多日军登上岛的西北地带,同时盟军也投入了最后的澳大利亚预备队到战场上。当2月9日的曙光升起时,第二十二旅的各部已遭消灭或被包围,其中澳大利亚第十八分之二步兵营[13]折损了一半以上的兵力。[14]
空战
![](http://images.weserv.nl/?url=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/BrewsterBuffalosMkIRAAFSingaporeOctober1941.jpg/220px-BrewsterBuffalosMkIRAAFSingaporeOctober1941.jpg)
盟军在空中的掩护仅有10架停放在加冷机场的飓风战斗机(隶属于皇家空军第232中队)。这是因为登加、实里达和胜宝旺三座机场均在新山的日军射程范围内。加冷机场是唯一可以起降飞机并让战机撤离的地方,残存的中队与战机在1月时被撤往荷属东印度,以增援该地的战事。[15]
1941年12月8日早晨4点15分,新加坡遭到日军长程轰炸机的第一次空袭,这些飞机的基地位于日据的印度支那,其中包括被称为尼尔(Nell)的九六式陆上攻撃机,以及被称为贝蒂(Betty)的一式陆上攻击机。这些轰炸机在空袭市中心时,同时也对胜宝旺海军基地与岛北部的机场进行了轰炸。第一波的空袭过后的整个十二月,出现了不少错误的警报以及几次罕见的袭击命中了外围的军事设施(如海军基地),但从未有任何空袭真的影响到新加坡市区。根据记载,市区接下来遭受的空袭发生于12月29及30日晚间,然后夜间空袭持续了一个星期,之后直到1942年1月12日才继续日间空袭。接着从1月12日以降至英军投降为止,日军的战线日益逼近新加坡岛,而日间与夜间的空袭,其强度与频率也随之增高,造成了数千名平民伤亡。
12月间,由24名飞行员所组成的五核心中队与51架飓风Mk II型战斗机被送往新加坡。他们于1942年1月3日抵达,而这个时候的F2A战斗机中队已不堪重负。于是组建了第232中队被,并将第488中队RNZAF从水牛中队改编为飓风战斗机。第232中对于1月20日加入到行动当中,并在当天以三架飓风战斗机的代价摧毁了三架一式战斗机“奥斯卡”[16]。然而,这些飓风战斗机也如先前的水牛战斗机一样,开始在激烈的缠斗中承受严重损失。
1月27日至1月30期间,另外48架飓风战斗机随着由顽强号航空母舰搭载的皇家空军第226团,从another 48 Hurricanes (Mk IIA) arrived with No. 226 Group (four squadrons) on the aircraft carrier “Indomitable”号92 (6), from which they flew to airfields code-named P1 and P2, near Palembang, Sumatra in the Dutch East Indies. The staggered arrival of the Hurricanes—along with inadequate early warning systems—meant that Japanese air raids were able to destroy a large proportion of the Hurricanes on the ground in Sumatra and Singapore.
![](http://images.weserv.nl/?url=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Hurricane_singapore.jpg/220px-Hurricane_singapore.jpg)
2月8日早晨, a number of aerial dogfights took place over Sarimbun Beach and other western areas. In the first encounter, the last ten Hurricanes were scrambled from Kallang Airfield to intercept a Japanese formation of about 84 planes, flying from Johor to provide air cover for their invasion force.[15] In two sorties, the Hurricanes shot down six Japanese planes for the loss of one of their own; they flew back to Kallang halfway through the battle, hurriedly re-fuelled, then returned to it.[17] Air battles went on for the rest of the day, and by nightfall it was clear that with the few machines Percival had left, Kallang could no longer be used as a base. With his assent the remaining eight flyable Hurricanes were withdrawn to Palembang, Sumatra, and Kallang became merely an advanced landing ground.[18] No allied aircraft were seen again over Singapore, and the Japanese had achieved complete air supremacy.[19]
2月10日晚间,阿奇博尔德·韦维尔将军下令将剩余的盟国空军私下转移至荷属东印度。就在此时,加冷机场的跑道因炸弹造成的坑洞与不平,而无法继续使用。[15]
第二天
由于误信东北方将有更多日军登陆,佩希瓦并未增援第二十二旅。2月9日,日军登陆方向转移至西南方,在那里遭遇了第四十四印度步兵旅。不久盟军被迫撤往更东方。班奈特决定组织武林地区(位于登加机场的东方,句容的北方)的第二条防线,即著名的“句容防线”。
一直到2月9日晚间十点近卫师团登陆前,邓肯·马克斯威旅长麾下位于北方的澳大利亚第二十七旅并未遭遇日军的进攻。日军这次的登陆行动进行的相当不顺,在澳军迫击炮与机枪的攻击下遭受惨重的损失,同时也因为燃烧中的油渗入水当中加剧了部队的死伤。一小群部队抵达岸边并试图守住脆弱的滩头堡。
指挥与控制不对的问题进一步削弱了盟军的防御。马克斯威警觉到第二十二旅正遭受逐渐增加的进攻压力,却无法联络泰勒旅长并警告其正在遭到日军的包围。尽管马克斯威的旅团成功击退了日军,并对班奈特上司抗命,他仍命属下从中北部的克兰芝撤出。盟军因此失去对比邻长堤西侧海滩的控制。
日军突破
在克兰芝防线的门户大开下,近卫师团得以在不受抵抗的情况下,让装甲部队登陆。坦克群借由浮具穿越了海峡,并沿着兀兰路迅速推往南方。这使得山下奉文得以包抄位于句容防线的第二十二旅,并绕过印度第十一师所在的海军基地。然而,近卫师团仍未能抓住冲入市中心的机会。
2月10日晚间,英国首相温斯顿·丘吉尔拍了封电报给韦维尔,内容如下:
我认为你应该了解到,我们所看见新加坡的情势。It was reported to Cabinet by the C.I.G.S. [Chief of the Imperial General Staff, General Alan Brooke] that Percival has over 100,000 [sic] men, of whom 33,000 are British and 17,000 Australian. It is doubtful whether the Japanese have as many in the whole Malay Peninsula... In these circumstances the defenders must greatly outnumber Japanese forces who have crossed the straits, and in a well-contested battle they should destroy them. There must at this stage be no thought of saving the troops or sparing the population. The battle must be fought to the bitter end at all costs. The 18th Division has a chance to make its name in history. Commanders and senior officers should die with their troops. The honour of the British Empire and of the British Army is at stake. I rely on you to show no mercy to weakness in any form. With the Russians fighting as they are and the Americans so stubborn at Luzon, the whole reputation of our country and our race is involved. It is expected that every unit will be brought into close contact with the enemy and fight it out ...[20]
Wavell subsequently told Percival that the ground forces were to fight on to the end, and that there should not be a general surrender in Singapore.[2]
2月11日,由于了解到日军的补给正迅速见底,山下奉文决定虚张声势一番,并告知白思华“要尽速放弃无意义与绝望的抵抗”。到了这个情况,第二十二旅的兵力已减少至数百人By this stage, the fighting strength of the 22nd Brigade—which had borne the brunt of the Japanese attacks—had been reduced to a few hundred men. The Japanese had captured the Bukit Timah area, including most of the allied ammunition and fuel and giving them control of the main water supplies.
The next day, the Allied lines stabilised around a small area in the south-east of the island and fought off determined Japanese assaults. Other units—including the 1st Malaya Infantry Brigade—had joined in. A Malayan platoon—led by 2nd Lieutenant Adnan bin Saidi—held the Japanese for two days at the Battle of Pasir Panjang. His unit defended Bukit Chandu, an area which included a major Allied ammunition store. Adnan was executed by the Japanese after his unit was overrun.
On 13 February, with the Allies still losing ground, senior officers advised Percival to surrender in the interests of minimising civilian casualties. Percival refused, but unsuccessfully sought authority to surrender from his superiors.
That same day, military police executed a convicted British traitor, Captain Patrick Heenan, who had been an Air Liaison Officer with the Indian Army.[22] Japanese military intelligence had recruited Heenan before the war, and he had used a radio to assist them in targeting Allied airfields in northern Malaya. He had been arrested on 10 December and court-martialled in January. Heenan was shot at Keppel Harbour, on the south side of Singapore, and his body was thrown into the sea.[2]
The following day, the remaining Allied units fought on; civilian casualties mounted as one million people crowded into the area still held by the Allies, and bombing and artillery fire intensified. Civilian authorities began to fear that the water supply would give out.
亚历山大医院大屠杀
![](http://images.weserv.nl/?url=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Alexandria_Hosp_plaque.jpg/135px-Alexandria_Hosp_plaque.jpg)
At about 13:00 on 14 February, Japanese soldiers advanced towards the Alexandra Barracks Hospital.[23] A British lieutenant—acting as an envoy with a white flag—approached the Japanese forces but was bayoneted and killed.[24] After the Japanese troops entered the hospital, a number of patients, including those undergoing surgery at the time, were killed along with doctors and members of nursing staff.[25] The following day about 200 male staff members and patients who had been assembled and bound the previous day,[26] many of them walking wounded, were ordered to walk about 400米(440 yd) to an industrial area. Anyone who fell on the way was bayoneted. The men were forced into a series of small, badly ventilated rooms and were imprisoned overnight without water. Some died during the night as a result of their treatment.[27] The remainder were bayoneted the following morning.[28]
Private Haines of the Wiltshire Regiment—another survivor—had been in the hospital suffering from malaria. He wrote a four-page account of the massacre, that was sold by his daughter by private auction in 2008;[29] Haines describes how the Japanese did not consider those who were weak, wounded or who had surrendered to be worthy of life. After surrendering, staff were ordered to proceed down a corridor, where Sergeant Rogers was bayoneted twice in the back and another officer, Captain Parkinson, was bayoneted through the throat. Others killed included Captain Heevers and Private Lewis. Captain Smiley and Private Sutton were bayoneted but survived by playing dead. Many who had not been imprisoned in the tiny rooms in the industrial area were systematically taken away in small groups and bayoneted or macheted to death. This continued for 24 hours, leaving 320 men and one woman dead. Those who lost their lives included a corporal from the Loyal Regiment, who was impaled on the operating table, and even a Japanese prisoner who was perhaps mistaken for a Gurkha.[来源请求]
There were only five known survivors, including George Britton (1922–2009) of the East Surrey Regiment,[30] and Private Haines, also Hugo Hughes, who lost his right leg, and George Wort, who lost an arm, both of the Malay Regiment.[31] There may have been others. Haines' account came to light only after his death. Survivors were so traumatised that they rarely spoke of their ordeal.
After three days with no food or drink, those unable to walk were taken to Changi on wheelbarrows and carts, no motorised vehicles being available.
新加坡沦陷
![](http://images.weserv.nl/?url=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/BritishSurrender.jpg/220px-BritishSurrender.jpg)
到了2月15日早晨,日军已经突破最后一道防线,而盟军正在耗尽粮食与弹药。高射炮也缺乏弹药来阻止更多日军的空袭,如此将导致市中心更多伤亡。盟军四处劫掠与开小差使得市中心更加混乱。[32]
9点30分,佩希瓦在福康宁开了一场高阶军官会议。他提出两个选择:要嘛发动立即的反攻夺回水库及位于武吉知马的军用存粮站,并逐退位于制高点的敌方炮火,不然就宣布投降。在场的所有军官都认为没有一种反击是可能达成,于是佩希瓦选择投降。
英军派了一个代表团前去日军指挥部协商投降事宜。这个代表团包含一位高阶军官、殖民地书记及一位翻译员。They set off in a motor car bearing a Union Jack and a white flag of truce toward the enemy lines to discuss a cessation of hostilities.[2] They returned with orders that Percival himself proceed with staff officers to the Ford Motor Factory, where Yamashita would lay down the terms of surrender. A further requirement was that the Japanese Rising Sun Flag be hoisted over the tallest building in Singapore, the Cathay Building, as soon as possible to maximise the psychological impact of the official surrender. Percival formally surrendered shortly after 17:15.
![](http://images.weserv.nl/?url=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Bosbritsurrendergroup.jpg/220px-Bosbritsurrendergroup.jpg)
日军提出接受英军投降的要求:
- 在新加坡的盟军全部无条件投降(包含路、海、空三军)。
- 当晚8点30分停止双方敌对行为。
- 所以部队留在原位静候进一步指示。
- 要完整移交所有武器、军事装备、船舰、飞机及秘密文件。
- 为防止市区陷入抢劫之类的暴动,在全部的军队从新加坡撤出以前,由一千名英军负责维护治安直到日军接手为止。
当日稍早,佩希瓦下令部下于下午四点前,销毁所有机密及技术设施、密码、代码、机密文件以及重型火炮。山下奉文接受他对于不留任何船只与飞机于新加坡的保证。根据同盟通信社的报导,山下奉文还保证英军及澳军们的性命将不会有所为害,同时也包括仍滞留于新加坡的英国公民。
班奈特和一些他麾下的军官因他将第八师的指挥权交给旅长,并征用小船逃跑而引起争议。[33]但他们最终仍成功逃回澳洲。
后续发展
日本在英军投降后占领了新加坡,新加坡开始日治时期。日本的报纸欢天喜地宣布胜利,认为他们即将在整场战争中获胜。[34] 新加坡改名为昭南岛 ([昭南岛 Shōnan-tō] 错误:{{Lang-xx}}:文本有斜体标记(帮助); 意即“南方光明之岛”,或“昭和天皇在南洋获取的领土”)。日军对华人进行报复,并消灭任何的反日的组织及行动。由于中国抗日战争仍在进行,日本当局对华人采以怀疑态度,并在肃清大屠杀中对华人进行种族清洗。其他在新加坡的种族(如马来人及印度人)也不能幸免。接下来的三年半内,所有日本统治下的新加坡居民们,过着极度痛苦的生活。
![](http://images.weserv.nl/?url=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/JapaneseMarchSgpCity.jpg/220px-JapaneseMarchSgpCity.jpg)
许多被俘的英军与澳军均被关在新加坡樟宜监狱,多数均无法返回家中。其他数以千计的俘虏则被以地狱船为名的战俘船,运送到亚洲的其他地区(包含日本)强制劳动。(著名例子像是泰缅死亡铁路及北婆罗洲的山打根机场)。当中有许多人上船时遇难。
日军相当成功地招募那些被俘的印度士兵,1942年2月时招募到约有40,000名印度军,其中约30,000人加入了倾日的“印度国民军”,并在缅甸战役中攻击盟军。[35]其他则成了樟宜战俘营的守卫。然而,仍有许多印度军不愿接受招降而继续做为战俘,有些人被带往日本占领的南太平洋地区强制劳动。多数人过得相当艰苦且遭到严重虐待,与其他日军的俘虏处境相去不远。其中有六千人因1943-1945年澳军与美军的解放,而很幸运存活下来。[35]
1945年日本投降后,山下奉文在当年稍早因在菲律宾犯下的战争罪行,被美国军事委员会审判,但这些战争罪刑却未包含山下及其部队在马来亚或新加坡的暴行。他最终于1946年2月23日在菲律宾被处以绞刑。[2]
参见
注脚
- ^ L, Klemen. Rear-Admiral Shoji Nishimura. Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942. 1999-2000.
- ^ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Smith, Colin. Singapore Burning: Heroism and Surrender in World War II. Penguin Group. 2006. ISBN 0-141-01036-3.
- ^ Churchill, Winston (1986). The Hinge of Fate, Volume 4. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, p. 81. ISBN 0395410584
- ^ Thompson, p. 92–94.
- ^ L, Klemen; Bert Kossen, Pierre-Emmanuel Bernaudin, Dr. Leo Niehorster, Akira Takizawa, Sean Carr, Jim Broshot, Nowfel Leulliot. Seventy minutes before Pearl Harbor – The landing at Kota Bharu, Malaya, on December 7th 1941. Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942. 1999-2000.
- ^ Thompson, p. 103–130.
- ^ Thompson, p. 60–61.
- ^ The Malayan Campaign 1941. [7 December 2005].
- ^ 澳大利亚第四分之二机枪营的介绍
- ^ Lee, Singapore: The Unexpected Nation, pg 37
- ^ War for the Empire: Malaya and Singapore, Dec 1941 to Feb 1942, Richard Reid, Australia-Japan Research Project
- ^ P.Elphick in S'pore the pregnable fortress – see bibliography – reports a quite different version
- ^ 澳大利亚第十八分之二步兵营的介绍
- ^ P.Elphick, op. cit. explains that this is mainly due to the high level of ... desertion among Australian units
- ^ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Frank Owen. The Fall of Singapore. England: Penguin Books. 2001. ISBN 0-14-139133-2.
- ^ Cull, Brian and Sortehaug, Brian and Paul. Hurricanes Over Singapore: RAF, RNZAF and NEI Fighters in Action Against the Japanese Over the Island and the Netherlands East Indies, 1942. London: Grub Street, 2004. (ISBN 1-904010-80-6), pp. 27–29. Note: 64 Sentai lost three Ki-43s and claimed five Hurricanes.
- ^ Hawker Hurricane shot down on 8 February 1942. [11 August 2007].
- ^ Captured Hurricane, Captured J-Aircraft
- ^ Percival's Despatches
- ^ The Second World War. Vol. IV. By Winston Churchill.
- ^ Shores 1992, p. 383.|width =35%| align =right
- ^ Peter Elphick, 2001, "Cover-ups and the Singapore Traitor Affair" Access date: 5 March 2007.
- ^ Thompson, p. 476.
- ^ Thompson, p. 477.
- ^ Thompson, p. 476–478.
- ^ Thompson, p. 477–478.
- ^ Thompson, p. 478.
- ^ Alexandra Massacre. [7 December 2005]. (原始内容存档于18 October 2005).
- ^ Daily Express, 14 August 2008
- ^ George Britton, personal recollection 2009
- ^ Hugo Hughes' war diary, written in Changi
- ^ Nicholas Rowe, Alistair Irwin. Generals At War. 60 记录于. 21 September 2009. National Geographic Channel.
|city=
被忽略 (帮助); 缺少或|title=
为空 (帮助) - ^ Lieutenant General Henry Gordon Bennett, CB, CMG, DSO an Australian War Memorial article
- ^ John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936–1945 p 277 Random House New York 1970
- ^ 35.0 35.1 Stanley, Peter. "Great in adversity": Indian prisoners of war in New Guinea. Australian War Memorial. [15 February 2008].
参考
- Cull, Brian. Hurricanes Over Singapore: RAF, RNZAF and NEI Fighters in Action Against the Japanese Over the Island and the Netherlands East Indies, 1942. Grub Street Publishing. 2004. ISBN 978-1904010807.
- Cull, Brian. Buffaloes over Singapore: RAF, RAAF, RNZAF and Dutch Brewster Fighters in Action Over Malaya and the East Indies 1941–1942. Grub Street Publishing. 2008. ISBN 978-1904010326.
- Dixon, Norman F. On the Psychology of Military Incompetence, London, 1976
- Bose, Romen. SECRETS OF THE BATTLEBOX: The History and Role of Britain's Command HQ during the Malayan Campaign, Marshall Cavendish, Singapore 2005
- Bose, Romen. KRANJI:The Commonwealth War Cemetery and the Politics of the Dead, Singapore: Marshall Cavendish (2006)
- Elphick, Peter, Singapore, the pregnable fortress, Hodder & Stoughton, London, 1995, ISBN 0-340-64990-9
- Kelly, Terence. Hurricanes Versus Zeros: Air Battles over Singapore, Sumatra and Java. Pen and Sword. 2008. ISBN 978-1844156221.
- Kinvig, Clifford. Scapegoat: General Percival of Singapore, London (1996) ISBN 0241105838
- Leasor, James. Singapore: The Battle That Changed The World UK, USA 1968, 2011. ISBN 978-1-908291-18-9
- Smyth, John George. Percival and the Tragedy of Singapore, MacDonald and Company, 1971, ASIN B0006CDC1Q
- Thompson, Peter. The Battle for Singapore, London (2005) ISBN 0749950684 HB
- Seki, Eiji. Mrs. Ferguson's Tea-Set, Japan and the Second World War: The Global Consequences Following Germany's Sinking of the SS Automedon in 1940. London: Global Oriental (2006) ISBN 1905246285; (cloth) [reprinted by University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 2007 – previously announced as Sinking of the SS Automedon and the Role of the Japanese Navy: A New Interpretation.]
- Shores, Christopher F; Cull, Brian; Izawa, Yasuho. Bloody Shambles: The First Comprehensive Account of the Air Operations over South-East Asia December 1941 – April 1942, London: Grub Street (2007)
- Shores, Christopher F; Cull, Brian; Izawa, Yasuho. Bloody Shambles, The First Comprehensive Account of the Air Operations over South-East Asia December 1941 – April 1942 Volume One: Drift to War to the Fall of Singapore. London: Grub Street Press. (1992) ISBN 094881750X
- Smith, Colin. Singapore Burning: Heroism and Surrender in World War II Penguin (2005) ISBN 0670913413
- Smyth, John George Smyth, Percival and the Tragedy of Singapore, MacDonald and Company, 1971
- Thompson, P. The Battle for Singapore, The True Story of the Greatest Catastrophe of World War II, London (2005) ISBN 0749950994
外部链接
![](http://images.weserv.nl/?url=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png)
- National Heritage Board, Battlefield Singapore
- Bicycle Blitzkrieg – The Japanese Conquest of Malaya and Singapore 1941–1942
- Royal Engineers Museum Royal Engineers and the Second World War – the Far East
- The diary of one British POW, Frederick George Pye of the Royal Engineers. Fred Pye was a POW for 3½ years, including time spent building the Burma Railway. He managed to save, write on and bury scraps of paper, and after the war compiled them into a readable form.
- Animated History of the Fall of Malaya and Singapore